Biscione
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
LES WINNILES VENAIENT DE SCANDINAVIE ET AVAIENT ADOPTE LE SERPENT
POUR LEUR ROI.
MAIS LA REINE SCYTHE TABITA ET DES PHARAONS TELS THOUTMOSIS III ET IV
L 'AVAIENT DEJA ADOPTE COMME LEUR
EMBLEME.
KROK LE FONDATEUR DE CRAKOVIE PERE DE LA REINE DE POLOGNE WANDA ET SELON LA LEGENDE LE VAINQUEUR DU DRAGON SERAIT UN ANCETRE DU
DUC QUI AURAIT ETE LE PREMIER WĄŻ
ET S 'EST VU ATTRIBUER
WężYKOWA WOLA PAR LE DUC SIEMOMYŚL PERE DE MIESZKO
PREMIER ROI CHRETIEN DE POLOGNE.LES WINNILES SE SONT MELANGES AVEC LES
VANDALES.LES WINNILES ONT CONQUIS L' ITALIE ET LES VANDALES ONT CONQUIS L
'ANDALOUSIE.DES AVIS LAISSENT PENSER QUE EN FAIT , il se pourrait que les
Goths, qui ont vécu en Pologne, soient des descendants des Scythes qui avaient
conquis l'Egypte, puisqu'on retrouve des vestiges de męmes habitudes.
The biscione as a symbol of Milan,
seen here at the Central Station.
The Biscione (Italian
pronunciation: [biʃˈʃone]; Italian for ‘large grass snake’), also known as the Vipera (‘viper’ or in Milanese as
theBissa), is a heraldic charge showing
in Argent an Azure serpent
in the act of consuming a human; usually a child and sometimes described as a Moor.
It has been the emblem of the Italian Visconti family
for around a thousand years. Its iconographic origins date back to paleochristian times, to the biblical story of Jonah and the Leviathan in
the act of swallowing (and/or regurgitating) him, a common motif representing
the resurrection. How that widely known image can
be traced to the Visconti house is unknown; however, it has been claimed that
it was taken from the coat of arms of a Saracen killed
by Ottone Visconti during theCrusades")[citation needed].
Additionally, a man being swallowed by a serpent but being rescued features in
a number of legends
about Theoderic the Great, most prominently in the poem Virginal, where the city of Arona, which was owned by the Visconti, is
featured.
The figure may also represent the circumpolar
constellation Draco,
from whose "mouth" emerges the brilliant star Vega,
in constellation Lyra (symbolized as a falling vulture in Arabian astronomy;
Lyra is near Cygnus, which is the "Chicken" in Arabian astronomy;
Jonah may be related to both, because it means "Dove"),[citation needed] or also a symbol of the
"coiling" path of the Moon towards the eclipse points.
The biscione appears also in the coats of
arms of the House of Sforza,
the city of Milan,
the historical Duchy of Milan and Insubria, as well as the towns of Pruzhany (Belarus)
and Sanok (Poland); the presence of Biscione in Poland and Belarus is due to queen Bona Sforza. It is also used as a
symbol or logo by the football club Internazionale,
by espresso machine manufacturer Bezzera, by Alfa Romeo and,
in a version where a flower replaces the child, by Fininvest.
The biscione appears on the cover of an
American paperback edition of the Thomas Harris novel Hannibal.
The biscione also appears on the right side
of the logo for automaker Alfa Romeo.
Another version of the Biscione appears in
the seals of the Hungarian nobleman Nicholas I Garay, palatine to the King of Hungary (1375–1385).
The crowned snake instead of a man, it devoures a Sovereign's Orb.[1]
Wōden
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wodan Heals Balder's Horse by Emil Doepler (1855-1922).
This
article is about the Germanic god. For other uses, see Woden
(disambiguation) and Wotan
(disambiguation).
Woden or Wodan (Old English: Ƿōden,[1] Old High German: Wôdan,[2]Old Saxon: Uuôden[3]) is a major deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental
Germanic polytheism. Together with his Norse counterpart[4] Odin,
Woden represents a development of the Proto-Germanic god *Wōdanaz.
Though less is known about the pre-Christian religion of Anglo-Saxon and
continental Germanic peoples than is known about Norse paganism, Woden is
attested in English, German, and Dutch toponyms as
well as in various texts and pieces of archeological evidence from the Early Middle Ages.
Contents
[hide] ·
3 Woden in Anglo-Saxon England ·
4 Medieval and Early Modern folklore ·
5 Legacy |
[edit]Etymology and origins
Main
article: Wōdanaz
*Wōđanaz or *Wōđinaz is the reconstructed Proto-Germanic name of a god of Germanic paganism. The name is connected to
the Proto-Indo-European stem *wāt,[5] "inspiration",[6] derived
ultimately from the Indo-European theme *awē,
"to blow". *Wāt continues in Old Irishfáith, "poet" or
"seer"; Old High German wut, "fury"; and Gothic wods,
"possessed".[7] Old
English had the noun wōţ "song,
sound", corresponding to Old Norse óđr, which has the meaning
"fury" but also "poetry, inspiration".[8] It
is possible therefore that *Wōđanaz was seen as a manifestation of
ecstasy, associated with mantic states,
fury, and poetic inspiration.[9] An
explicit association of Wodan with the state of fury was made by 11th century
German chronicler Adam of Bremen, who, when detailing the religious
practices ofScandinavian pagans, described Wodan, id est furor,
"Wodan, that is, the furious".[10]
Woden probably rose to prominence during the Migration period, gradually displacing Tyr as the head of the pantheon in
West and NorthGermanic cultures -- though such theories are only
academic speculation based on trends of worship for other Indo-European cognate
deity figures related to Tyr.
He is in all likelihood identical with the
Germanic god identified as "Mercury"
by Roman writers[11] and
possibly with the regnator omnium deus (god, ruler of all) mentioned by Tacitus in
his 1st century work Germania.[12]
The earliest attestation of the name is as Wodan (ᚹᛟᛞᚨᚾ) in an Elder Futhark
inscription: possibly on the Arguel pebble (of dubious authenticity, if genuine
dating to the early 6th century), and on the Nordendorf fibula (early 7th century). Only slightly
younger than the runic testimony of the Nordendorf fibula is the vita of Saint Columbanus by Jonas of Bobbio, which gives the Latinized Vodanus (attested in the dative, as Vodano). A further runic
inscription, on a brooch from Mülheim-Kärlich,
purportedly reading wodini
hailag "consecrated to Woden",
has long been recognized as a falsification.[13]
[edit]Continental Wodan
The
Nordendorf II fibula.
The
Winnili women wear their hair to look like long beards.
Details of Migration period Germanic religion are sketchy, reconstructed from
artifacts, sparse contemporary sources, and the later testimonies of medieval
legends and place names.
According to Jonas of Bobbio, the 6th century Irish
missionary Saint Columbanus is reputed to have interrupted an
offering being made by the Suebi to "their God Wodan".[14] "Wuodan"
was the chief god of the Alamanni, his name appears in the runic inscription
on the Nordendorf fibulae.
The Langobard historian Paul the Deacon, who died in southern Italy in
the 790s, was proud of his tribal origins and related how his people once had
migrated from southern Scandinavia.[15] In
his work Historia
Langobardorum, Paul states that "Wotan ... is adored as a
god by all the peoples of Germania"[16] and
relates how Godan's (Wotan's) wife Frea (Frijjo) had given victory to the Langobards in a war
against the Vandals.[15]The story is an etiology of the name
of the Lombards, interpreted as
"longbeards". According to the story, the Langobards were formerly
known as the "Winnili". In the war with the Vandals, Godan favoured
the Vandals, while Frea favoured the Winnili. After a heated discussion, Godan
swore that he would grant victory to the first tribe he saw the next morning upon
awakening—knowing full well that the bed was arranged so that the Vandals were
on his side. While he slept, Frea told the Winnili women to comb their hair
over their faces to look like long beards so they would look like men and
turned the bed so the Winnili women would be on Godan's side. When he woke up,
Godan was surprised to see the disguised women first and asked who these long
bearded men were, which was where the tribe got its new name, the
"longbeards".
Woden is mentioned in an Old Saxon baptismal vow
in Vatican Codex pal. 577 along with Thunear (Thor)
and Saxnōt. The 8th- or 9th-century vow,
intended for Christianising pagans, is recorded as:
ec forsacho allum dioboles
uuercum and uuordum, Thunaer ende Uuöden ende Saxnote ende allum them unholdum
the hira genötas sint
I forsake all devil's
work and words, Thunear and Wōden and Saxnōt and all them monsters
that are their retainers.[17]
Recorded during the 9th or 10th
century,[18] one
of the two Merseburg
Incantations, from Merseburg, Germany mentions
Wodan who rode into a wood together with Phol.
There Balder's horse was injured, and Wodan, together with goddesses, cured the
horse with enchantments (Phol is usually identified as Baldr).
[edit]Woden in
Anglo-Saxon England
"If a West Saxon
farmer in pagan times had walked out of his buryor ton above the Vale of Pewsey some autumn day, and looking up to the
hills had caught sight of a bearded stranger seeming in long cloak larger than
life as he stalked the skyline through the low cloud; and if they had met at
the gallows by the cross-roads where a body still dangled; and if the farmer
had noticed the old wanderer glancing up from under a shadowy hood or floppy
brimmed hat with a gleam of recognition out of his one piercing eye as though
acclaimed a more than ordinary interest, a positive interest, in the corpse;...
and if all this had induced in the beholder a feeling of awe; then he would
have been justified in believing that he was in the presence of Woden tramping
the world of men over his own Wansdyke."
Brian Branston, 1957.[19]
Anglo-Saxon
polytheism reached
Great Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries with the Anglo-Saxon migration,
and persisted until the completion of the Christianization
of England by the 8th
or 9th century.
For the Anglo-Saxons, Woden was the psychopomp or
carrier-off of the dead,[citation needed] but not necessarily with exactly the
same attributes of the Norse Odin. There has been some doubt as to whether the
early English had the concepts of Valkyries and Valhalla in
the Norse sense. The Sermo Lupi ad Anglos refers to the wćlcyrian,
"valkyries", but the term appears to have itself been a loan from Old Norse, and in the text is used to mean
"(human) sorceress".[20]
The Christian writer of the Maxims found in the Exeter Book (341,
28) records the verse Wôden
worhte weos, wuldor alwealda rűme roderas("Woden wrought the (heathen)
altars / the almighty
Lord the wide
heavens"). The name of such Wôdenes
weohas (Saxon Wôdanes with, Norse Ođins ve) or sanctuaries to
Woden survives in toponymy as Odinsvi, Wodeneswegs.
[edit]Royal
genealogy
Main article: Anglo-Saxon
Genealogies
Further information: Kings of the Angles
.png)
Woden listed as an ancestor ofĆlfwald of East
Anglia in the Textus Roffensis (12th century).
As the Christianisation of England took
place, Woden was euhemerised as
an important historical king[21] and
was believed to be the progenitor of numerous Anglo-Saxon royal houses.[22]
Discussing the Anglo-Saxon
settlement of Britain, Bede,
in his Ecclesiastical
History of the English People (completed
in or before 731[23]) writes that:
The two first commanders are said to
have been Hengist and Horsa ... They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose father was Vecta,
son of Woden; from whose stock the royal race of many provinces deduce their
original.[24]
The Historia Brittonum,
composed around 830,[25] presents
a similar genealogy and additionally lists Woden as a descendent of Godwulf,[26] who
likewise in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda is said to be an ancestor of
"Vóden, whom we call Odin".[27][28]
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
composed during the reign of Alfred the Great,[29] Woden
was the father of Wecta, Beldeg, Wihtgils and Wihtlaeg[30] and
was therefore an ancestor of theKings of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia.
As in Bede's Ecclesiastical
History, a history of early Anglo-Saxon migration to Britain incorporating Woden
as an ancestor of Hengist and Horsa is given:
These men came from three tribes of
Germany: from the Old Saxons, from the Angles, and from the Jutes ... their
commanders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa, that were the sons of
Wihtgils. Wihtgils was Witta's offspring, Witta Wecta's offspring, Wecta
Woden's offspring. From that Woden originated all our royal family ...[31]
Descent from Woden appears to have been
an important concept in Early Medieval England. According to N.J. Higham, claiming Woden as an ancestor had
by the 8th century become an essential way of establishing royal authority.[32] Richard
North (1997) believes similarly that "no king by the late seventh century
could do without the status that descent from Woden entailed."[33]
[edit]Nine Herbs
Charm
Recorded in the 10th century,[34] the Old English Nine Herbs Charm contains a mention of Woden:
A snake came crawling, it
bit a man.
Then Woden took nine
glory-twigs,
Smote the serpent so that
it flew into nine parts.
There apple brought this
pass against poison,
That she nevermore would
enter her house.[35]
According to R.K. Gordon, the Nine Herbs Charm is an originally pagan spell altered
by later Christian interpolation.[36] Baugh
andMalone (1959)
write that "This narrative ... is a precious relic of English heathendom;
unluckily we do not know the Woden myth which it summarizes."[37] A
charm from the same period, Wiđ fćrstice, refers to the esa[38] ("gods",[39] cognate
of Norse ćsir) but does not mention any deities by
name.
[edit]Medieval and Early Modern folklore
Woden persisted as a figure in folklore
and folk religion throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern period,
notably as the leader of the Wild Hunt found
in English, German, Swiss, and Scandinavian traditions.[40]
Woden is thought to be the precursor of
the English Father Christmas, or Father Winter, and the American Santa Claus.[41][42][43][44][45][46][47]
A celebrated late attestation of invocation
of Wodan in Germany dates to 1593, in Mecklenburg, where the formula Wode, Hale dynem Rosse nun Voder "Wodan, fetch now food for your
horse" was spoken over the last sheaf of the harvest.[48] David
Franck adds, that at the squires' mansions, when the rye is all cut, there is Wodel-beer served out to the mowers; no one weeds
flax on a Wodenstag, lest Woden's horse should trample the seeds; from
Christmas to Twelfth-day they will not spin, nor leave any flax on the distaff,
and to the question why? they answer, Wode is galloping across. We are
expressly told, this wild hunter Wode rides a white horse. (34)
A custom in Schaumburg is
reported by Jacob Grimm: the people go out to mow in
parties of twelve, sixteen or twenty scythes, but it is managed in such a
manner, that on the last day of harvest they are all finished at the same time,
or some leave a strip standing which they can cut down at a stroke the last
thing, or they merely pass their scythes over the stubble, pretending there is
still some left to mow. At the last stroke of the scythe they raise their
implements aloft, plant them upright, and beat the blades three times with the
strop. Each spills on the field a little of the drink he has, whether beer,
brandy, or milk, then drinks himself, while they wave their hats, beat their
scythes three times, and cry aloud Wôld,
Wôld, Wôld! and the women
knock all the crumbs out of their baskets on the stubble. They march home
shouting and singing. If the ceremony was omitted, the following year would
bring bad crops of hay and corn. The first verse of the song is quoted by
Grimm,
|
„Wôld, Wôld, Wôld! |
“Wôld, Wôld, Wôld”! |
Grimm notes that the custom had died
out in the fifty years preceding his time of writing (1835)[citation needed].
In England there are also folkloric
references to Woden, including the "giants' dance" of Woden and Frigg
in Dent as recorded by Grimm,[49] and
the Lincolnshire charm that contained the line "One for God, one for Wod
and one for Lok".[50] Other
references include the Northumbrian Auld
Carl Hood from the ballad Earl Brand,[51] Herla,[52][53][54][55] Woden's
role as the leader of the Wild Hunt inNorthern England[56][57][58][59] and
quite possibly Herne, the Wild Huntsman of Berkshire.[60][61][62][63]
[edit]Legacy
[edit]Toponyms
Main article: List of
places named after *Wodanaz
Grimm (Teutonic Mythology, ch. 7) discusses traces of Woden's name in toponymy. Certain mountains were sacred to the
service of the god. Othensberg,
now Onsberg,
on the Danish island of Samsř; Odensberg in Schonen. Godesberg near Bonn,
from earlierWôdenesberg (annis
947, 974). Near the holy oak in Hesse, which Boniface brought down, there stood
a Wuodenesberg, still so
named in a document of 1154, later Vdenesberg,
Gudensberg; this hill is not to be confounded with Gudensberg by Erkshausen,
nor with a Gudenberg by Oberelsungen and Zierenberg so that three mountains
of this name occur in Lower Hesse alone;
conf. montem Vodinberg, cum
silva eidem monti attinente, (doc.
of 1265). In a different neighbourhood, a Henricus
comes de Wôdenesberg is named
in a doc. of 1130. A Wôdnes
beorg in the Saxon Chronicle,
later Wodnesborough, Wanborough in Wiltshire. A Wôdnesbeorg in Lappenberg's map near the Bearucwudu, conf. Wodnesbury, Wodnesdyke, Wôdanesfeld.
To this we must add, that about the Hessian Gudensberg the story goes that King Charles lies
prisoned in it, that he there won a victory over the Saxons, and opened a well
in the wood for his thirsting army, but he will yet come forth of the mountain,
he and his host, at the appointed time. The mythus of a victorious army pining
for water is already applied to King Carl by the Frankish annalists, at the
very moment when they bring out the destruction of the Irminsul; but beyond a doubt it is
older : Saxo Grammaticus has it of the victorious Balder.
The breviarium
Lulli, in names a place in Thuringia: in
Wudaneshusum, and again Woteneshusun; in Oldenburg there
is a Wodensholt, now Godensholt,
cited in a land-book of 1428; Wothenower,
seat of a Brandenburg family anno 1334; not far from Bergen op Zoom, towards Antwerp, stands to
this day a Woensdrecht, as if Wodani trajectum. Woensel = Wodenssele, Wodani aula, a so-calledstadsdeel of
the city of Eindhoven on
the Dommel in Northern Brabant. This Woensel is like the Ođinssalr, Othänsäle, Onsala; Wunstorp, Wunsdorf, a convent
and small town in Lower Saxony, stands unmutilated as Wodenstorp in a document of 1179. Near Windbergen in
the Ditmar country, an open space in a wood bears the name of Wodenslag, Wonslag. Near Hadersleben in
Schleswig are the villages ofWonsbeke, Wonslei, Woyens formerly Wodensyen. An Anglo-Saxon
document of 862 contains in a boundary-settlement the nameWônstoc = Wôdenesstoc, Wodani stipes, and at the same
time betrays the influence of the god on ancient delimitation (Wuotan, Hermes,
Mercury, all seem to be divinities of measurement and demarcation)
Wensley,[64][65][66] Wednesbury,[67][68] Wansdyke[69][70] and Wednesfield[68] are
named after Woden. Also, the Woden Valley inCanberra, Australia is
named after Woden.
[edit]Wednesday
Wednesday (Wēdnes
dćg, "Woden's day", interestingly continuing the variant *Wōdinaz (with umlaut of ō to ē),
unlike Wōden,
continuing *Wōdanaz) is named after him, his link with the dead
making him the appropriate match to the Roman Mercury.
[edit]See also
· Continental
Germanic mythology
· List of
places named after Woden
· Mythology of
the Low Countries
· Urglaawe
· Weoh
Wansdyke
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wansdyke may
refer to:
·
Wansdyke
(UK Parliament constituency)
Lombards
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Iron Crown of
Lombardy, used for the coronation of thekings of Italy until 1946
The Lombards or Langobards (Latin: Langobardī),
were a Germanic tribewho ruled a Kingdom in Italy from 568 to 774.
The Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the Historia
Langobardorumthat the Lombards descended from a small tribe
called the Winnili[1] who
dwelt in southern Scandinavia[2] (Scadanan)
before migrating to seek new lands. In the 1st century AD they formed part of
the Suebi,
in northwesternGermany. By the end of the 5th century they
had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria north
of the Danube river,
where they subdued the Heruls and
later fought frequent wars with the Gepids.
The Lombard kingAudoin defeated
the Gepid leader Thurisind in
551 or 552; his successorAlboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567.
Following this victory, Alboin decided to
lead his people to Italy, which had become severely depopulated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom there. The Lombards were joined by
numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was
almost unopposed. By late 569 they had conquered all the principal cities north
of the Po River except Pavia,
which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy. They established a Lombard
Kingdom in Italy, later named Regnum Italicum ("Kingdom of Italy"), which
reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand.
In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish KingCharlemagne and
integrated into his Empire. However, Lombard nobles continued to
rule parts of the Italian peninsula well into the 11th century when they
were conquered by the Normans and
added to their County of Sicily. Their legacy is apparent in
the regional appellation, Lombardy.
[edit]History
[edit]Early history
Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards,
circa 720-799.
[edit]Legendary origins and name
Further
information: Hundings
The fullest account of Lombard origins,
history, and practices is the Historia
Langobardorum(History of the Lombards) of Paul the Deacon, written in the 8th century.
Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the Lombard People).
The Origo
Gentis Langobardorum tells
the story of a small tribe called the Winnili[1] dwelling
in southern Scandinavia[2] (Scadanan)
(the Codex Gothanus writes that the Winnili first dwelt
near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul).[3] The
Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their native land to
seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation.[4] The
departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara[5] and
arrived in the lands of Scoringa,
perhaps the Baltic coast[6] or
the Bardengau on
the banks of the Elbe.[7] Scoringa
was ruled by the Vandals and
their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice
between tribute or war.
The Winnili were young and brave and refused
to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to
stain it by the payment of tribute."[8] The
Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan (the god Odin[2]), who answered that he would give
the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise.[9] The
Winnili were fewer in number[8] and
Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess Frigg[2]), who advised that all Winnili women
should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line
with their husbands. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, "Who
are these long-beards?," and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given
them the name, now give them also the victory."[10] From
that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards (Latinised as Langobardi, Italianised as Lombardi, and Anglicized as Lombards).
When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk
and devoted Christian. He thought the paganstories of his people "silly"
and "laughable".[9][11] Paul
explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their
beards.[12] A
modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarđr, a name of Odin.[13] Priester
states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they
also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin, thus creating a
conscious tribal tradition.[14] Fröhlich
inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the
Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their
new name reflected this.[15] Bruckner
remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship
of Odin, whose many names include "the Long-bearded"
or "the Grey-bearded", and that the Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the
gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity.[16]
[edit]Archaeology and migrations
From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD
20) and Tacitus (AD
117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian
era, next to the Chauci.[17] Strabo
states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe.[18] The
German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial
sites at the lower Elbe as Langobardic.[19] The
burial sites are crematorial and are usually dated from the 6th century BC
through the 3rd AD, so a settlement breakoff seems unlikely.[20] The
lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic, differing from the lands
between Rhine, Weser,
and the North Sea.[21] Archaeological
finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people.[22]
Distribution
of Langobardic burial fields at the Lower Elbe Lands, according to W. Wegewitz
The first mention of the Lombards occurred
between AD 9 and 16, by the Romancourt historian Velleius Paterculus,
who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry.[17] Paterculus
described the Lombards as "more fierce than ordinary German
savagery."[23] Tacitus counted
the Lombards as a Suebiantribe,[24] and
subjects of Marobod the
King of the Marcomanni.[25] Marobod
had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the Lombards were not part of
the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at
the Battle of
Teutoburg Forest in AD
9. In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod. Tacitus records:
Not only the Cheruscans and their
confederates... took arms, but the Semnones and Langobards, both Suevian
nations, revolted to him from the sovereignty of Marobod... The armies... were
stimulated by reasons of their own, the Cheruscans and the Langobards fought
for their ancient honor or their newly acquired independence. . . "[24]
In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and
they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The
Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control the destiny of
the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight
years earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty again.[26] In
the mid-2nd century, the Lombards appeared in the Rhineland. According to Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards settled south of
the Sugambri[27] but
also remained on the Elbe, between the Chauci and the Suebi,[28] indicating
a Lombard expansion. The Codex
Gothanus also mentions Patespruna (Paderborn) in connection with the Lombards.[29] Cassius Dio reported
that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Ubii crossed the Danube and
invaded Pannonia.[30] The
two tribes were defeated, whereupon they desisted from their invasion and sent
Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as ambassador to Aelius
Bassus, who was then administering Pannonia. Peace was made and the
two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards was the
lands of the lower Elbe.[31] At
about this time, Tacitus, in his work Germania (AD 98), describes the Lombards as
such:
To the Langobardi, on the contrary, their
scanty numbers are a distinction. Though surrounded by a host of most powerful
tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring the perils of war.
From the 2nd century onwards, many of the
Germanic tribes recorded as active during the Principate started to unite into
bigger tribal unions, resulting in the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and Saxons.[32] The
Lombards may disappear from Roman history from 166–489 because they dwelt so
deep within Inner Germania that they were detectable only when they reappeared
on the banks of the Danube, or because they were subjected to a larger tribal
union, like the Saxons.[32] It
is, however, highly probable that when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a
considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon
tribes in the region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards.[33] However,
the Codex Gothanus states that the Lombards were
subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under their first
king, Agelmund, who ruled for thirty years.[34] In
the second half of the 4th century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due
to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration.[35]
Lombard
migration from Scandinavia
The migration route of the Lombards in 489,
from their homeland to "Rugiland", encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be the their land on the
Elbe shores), Mauringa, Golanda,Anthaib, Banthaib, and Vurgundaib (Burgundaib).[36] According
to the Ravenna Cosmography,
Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe.[37]
The crossing into Mauringa was very
difficult. The Assipitti (Usipetes) denied them passage through their lands and
a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe. The Lombard was
victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa.[38]
The Lombards departed from Mauringa and
reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this was further east, perhaps
on the right bank of the Oder.[39] Schmidt
considers the name the equivalent of Gotland, meaning simply "good land."[40] This
theory is highly plausible; Paul the Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a
river, and they could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate.[41]
Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed
through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib, believed to be the
old lands of the Burgundes.[42][43] In
Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by "Bulgars" (probably Huns)[44] and
were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and Laimicho was made king. He was in his
youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund.[45] The
Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat
but rose up and defeated them with great slaughter,[46] gaining
great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in undertaking the toils
of war."[47]
In the 540s, Audoin (ruled
546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia, where they received Imperial
subsidies as Justinian encouraged
them to battle the Gepids.
[edit]Kingdom in Italy
Main
article: Kingdom of the
Lombards
[edit]Invasion and conquest of the Italian
peninsula
The
Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and
Benevento
In 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin, a young and energetic leader who defeated the
neighboring Gepidae and
made them his subjects; in 566, he marriedRosamund,
daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund. In the spring of 568, Alboin led the
Lombard migration into Italy:[48]
"Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia, hastened to take possession of Italywith
their wives and children and all their goods." B.2-Ch.7
Various other people who either voluntarily
joined or were subjects of King Alboin were
also part of the migration:[48]
"Whence, even until today, we call
the villages in which they dwell Gepidan,Bulgarian, Sarmatian, Pannonian, Suabian, Norican, or by other names of this kind."
B.2-Ch.26
The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli)
in northeastern Italy, in 569. There, Alboin
created the first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephewGisulf. Soon Vicenza, Verona and Brescia fell
into Germanic hands. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main
Roman centre of northern Italy, Milan.
The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars,
and the small Byzantine army
left for its defence could do almost nothing. The Exarch sent
to Italy by Emperor Justin II, Longinus, could defend only coastal
cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in
572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. In
the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and
establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto,
which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom,
surviving well into the 12th century. The Byzantines managed
to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor
running through Perugia.
When they entered Italy, some Lombards
retained their native form of paganism, while some were Arian Christians.
Hence they did not enjoy good relations with the Catholic Church. Gradually, they adopted Roman
titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the 7th
century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts.
By the time Paul the Deacon was writing, the Lombard language,
dress and even hairstyles had all disappeared.[49]
The whole Lombard territory was divided into
36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities. The king ruled over them
and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi. This subdivision,
however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the
kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines,
especially after they began to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness
became even more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power of
the Franks. In response, the kings tried to centralize power over time, but
they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento in
the attempt.
[edit]Langobardia major
[edit]Langobardia minor
·
Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of
Spoleto
·
Duchy of Benevento and List
of Dukes and Princes of Benevento
[edit]Arian monarchy
The
Frankish Merovingian King Chlothar IIin combat with the Lombards
In 572 Alboin was murdered in Verona in a
plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled toRavenna. His successor, Cleph,
was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death began an
interregnum of years (the "Rule of the Dukes") during which the dukes did
not elect any king, a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder. In
584, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected as king Cleph's son, Authari. In 589, he marriedTheodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria,
the Duke of Bavaria. The Catholic Theodelinda was
a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In
the meantime, Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried
to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for
the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs
side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines
and the Franks.
Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf, the duke of Turin,
who also married Theodelinda in the same year. Agilulf successfully fought the
rebel dukes of northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in
603, and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay tribute. Agilulf died in 616;
Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by Adaloald. Arioald, the head of the Arian opposition who
had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald.
Arioald was succeeded by Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the
most energetic of all Lombard kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in
643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto, including the Roman city of Opitergium(Oderzo). Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his
name, the Edictum Rothari, which established the
laws and the customs of his people in Latin:
the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain
their own laws. Rothari's son Rodoaldsucceeded him in 652, still very young,
and was killed by the Catholic party.
At the death of King Haripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between
his children Perctarit, who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia.
Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald,
son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and
Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to theAvars and
then to the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and
deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also
defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned
and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat
the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the philo-Catholic Cunincpert.
The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: In 623–26 the
Lombards unsuccessfully attackedCarantanians; in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava Valley and the Friuli.
[edit]Catholic monarchy
King Liutprand - (712-744)
"was a zealous Catholic, generous and a great founder of
monasteries" [50]
Religious strife and the Slavic raids
remained a source of struggle in the following years. In 705, the Friuli
Lombards were defeated and lost the land to the west of the Soča River,
namely the Gorizia Hills and the Venetian Slovenia.[51] A
new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until
the present time.[51][52]
The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son ofAnsprand and
successor of the brutal Aripert II. He managed to regain a certain
control overSpoleto and
Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and
Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate
of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome.
He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel to drive back theArabs.
The Slavs were defeated in the Battle
of Lavariano, when they tried to conquer theFriulian Plain in 720.[51] Liutprand's
successor Aistulf conquered
Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time, but was subsequently defeated by
the king of the Franks Pippin III, called by the Pope, and had to
leave it. After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis tried
once again to be king of the Lombardy but he was deposed in the same year.
After his defeat of Ratchis, the last Lombard
to rule as king was Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, who managed to take Ravenna
definitively, ending the Byzantine presence
in northern Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against the Pope, who was
supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in
772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful king Charlemagne, Desiderius was defeated at Susa and
besieged in Pavia,
while his son Adelchis had
also to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in
774 and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title "King of
the Lombards" as well. Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently
conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people.
Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States.
The Lombardy region
in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan and the old
capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards.
[edit]Later history
Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the 8th century AD
[edit]United Principality of Benevento
Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the
north fell to Charlemagne, the Lombard-controlled territory to the south of the
Papal States was never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants. In 774,
Duke Arechis II of
Benevento, whose duchy had only nominally been under royal
authority, though certain kings had been effective at making their power known
in the south, claimed that Benevento was the successor state of the kingdom. He tried to turn
Benevento into a secundum
Ticinum: a second Pavia. He tried to claim the kingship, but with no
support and no chance of a coronation in Pavia.
Charlemagne came down with an army, and his
son Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke
to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his
successors were de facto independent. The Beneventan dukes took
the title princeps (prince) instead of that of king.
The Lombards of southern Italy were
thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires:
the Carolingian Empireto
the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east. They typically made
pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained
outside Frankish control. Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet
when it imposed a tribute on theDuchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to
Byzantium and even conquered the Neapolitan city of Amalfi in
838. At one point in the reign of Sicard,
Lombard control covered most of southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and
Naples, with its nominally attached cities. It was during the 9th century that
a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly Greek Apulia. However,
Sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the Saracens in
his war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839,
Amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in Benevento,
crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies.
The civil war lasted ten years and was ended
only by a peace treaty imposed by the Emperor Louis II, the only Frankish king to
exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states, in 849, which divided the
kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and thePrincipality of
Salerno, with its capital at Salerno on
the Tyrrhenian.
[edit]Southern
Italy and the Arabs, 836–915
Main
article: History
of Islam in southern Italy
Andrew II of Naples hired Saracen mercenaries
for his war with Sicard of Benevento in 836; Sicard responded with other Muslim
mercenaries. The Saracens initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and
Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of
Benevento called in
more mercenaries who destroyed Capua in 841. Landulf the Old founded the present-day Capua,
"New Capua", on a nearby hill. In general, the Lombard princes were
less inclined to ally with the Saracens than with their Greek neighbours of
Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples and Sorrento. Guaifer of Salerno,
however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty.
A large Muslim force seized Bari,
until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of Pandenulf,
in 847. Saracen incursions proceeded northwards until Adelchis of Benevento called in the help of his suzerain,
Louis II. Louis allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I to
expel the Arabs from Bari in 869. An Arab landing force was defeated by the
emperor in 871. Adelchis and Louis were at war for the rest of the latter's
career. Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings
and in that capacity he amended the Edictum Rothari, the last Lombard ruler to
do so.
After Louis's death, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen
alliance, but Pope John VIII convinced him to break it off. Guaimar I of Salerno fought the Saracens with Byzantine
troops. Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one
party to another. Finally, towards 915, Pope John X managed
to unite the Christian princes of southern Italy against the Saracen
establishments on the Garigliano river.
That year, in the Battle of the
Garigliano, the Saracens were ousted from Italy.
Italy
around the turn of the millennium, showing the Lombard states in the south on
the eve of the arrival of the Normans.
[edit]The Lombard principalities
in the 10th century
The independent state at Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to move towards independence and, by
the end of the century, they were styling themselves "princes" and
there was a third Lombard state. The Capuan and Beneventan states were united
byAtenulf I of Capua in 900. He subsequently declared them
to be in perpetual union and they were separated only in 982, on the death of Pandulf Ironhead. With all of the Lombard
south under his control save Salerno, Atenulf felt safe in using the title princeps gentis Langobardorum ("prince of the Lombard
people"), which Arechis II had begun using in 774. Among Atenulf's
successors the principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers,
cousins, and uncles for the greater part of the century. Meanwhile, the princeGisulf I of Salerno began using the title Langobardorum gentis princeps around mid-century, but the ideal of a
united Lombard principality was realised only in December 977, when Gisulf died
and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead, who temporarily held almost
all Italy south of Rome and brought the Lombards into alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. His territories were
divided upon his death.
Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to
conquer the principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples,
but with the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi Gisulf repulsed him. The rulers of
Benevento and Capua made several attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but late in the century,
the Byzantines, under the stiff rule of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards.
The principal source for the history of the
Lombard principalities in this period is theChronicon
Salernitanum, composed late in the 10th century at Salerno.
[edit]Norman
conquest, 1017–1078
Main
article: Norman
conquest of southern Italy
The diminished Beneventan principality soon
lost its independence to the papacy and
declined in importance until it fell in the Normanconquest
of southern Italy. The Normans, first called in by the Lombards to
fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under
the likes of Melus of Bari and Arduin, among
others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south. The Salernitan principality
experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV,
but under Gisulf II,
the principality shrank to insignificance and fell in 1078 toRobert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's
sister Sichelgaita. The Capua principality was hotly
contested during the reign of the hatedPandulf IV,
the Wolf of the Abruzzi,
and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard Drengot (1058). The Capuans revolted against
Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson Richard II and setting up one Lando IV.
Capua was again put under Norman rule after
the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined
in importance under a series of ineffectual Norman rulers. The independent
status of these Lombard states is in general attested by the ability of their
rulers to switch suzerains at will. Often the legal vassal of pope or emperor
(either Byzantine or Holy Roman),
they were the real power-brokers in the south until their erstwhile allies, the
Normans, rose to preeminence: The Lombards regarded the Normans as barbarians
and the Byzantines as oppressors. Regarding their own civilisation as superior,
the Lombards did indeed provide the environment for the illustriousSchola Medica
Salernitana.
[edit]Culture
[edit]Language
Main
article: Lombardic language
The Lombardic language is extinct (unless Cimbrian and Mocheno represent
surviving dialects).[53] The Germanic language declined beginning in the 7th century,
but may have been in scattered use until as late as about the year 1000. The
language is preserved only fragmentarily, the main evidence being individual
words quoted in Latin texts. In the absence of Lombardic
texts, it is not possible to draw any conclusions about the language's morphology
and syntax. The genetic classification the language is based entirely on
phonology. Since there is evidence that Lombardic participated in, and indeed
shows some of the earliest evidence for, the High German
consonant shift, it is classified as an Elbe Germanic or Upper German dialect.
Lombardic fragments are preserved in runic inscriptions. Among the primary source
texts are short inscriptions in the Elder Futhark, among them the "bronze
capsule of Schretzheim" (c. 600). There are a number
of Latin texts that include Lombardic names, and Lombardic legal texts contain
terms taken from the legal vocabulary of the vernacular. In 2005, there were
claims that the inscription of thePernik sword may
be Lombardic.
The Italian language preserves a large number
of Lombardic words, although it is not always easy to tell them apart from
those stemming from other Germanic languages such as Gothic and Frankish. They
often bear some resemblance to English words as Lombardic was akin to Saxon.
For instance, landa from land, guardia from wardan (warden), guerra from werra (war), guadare from wadjan (to wade).
[edit]Social
structure
[edit]Migration Period society
The Lombard kings can be traced back as early
as c. 380 and thus to the beginning of the
Great Migration. Kingship developed amongst the Germanic peoples when the unity
of a single military command was found necessary. Schmidt believed that the
Germanic tribes were divided according to cantons and that the earliest government was a
general assembly that selected the chiefs of the cantons and the war leaders from
the cantons (in times of war). All such figures were probably selected from a
caste of nobility. As a result of wars of their wanderings, royal power
developed such that the king became the representative of the people; but the
influence of the people upon the government did not fully disappear.[54] Paul
the Deacon gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the
migration:
. . . in order that they might increase the
number of their warriors, [the Lombards] confer liberty upon many whom they
deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of these may be regarded
as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow, uttering
certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact.
Complete emancipation appears to have been
granted only among the Franks and the Lombards.[55]
[edit]Society of the Catholic kingdom
See
also: Duke (Lombard)
Lombard society was divided into classes
comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor states of Rome: Frankish Gauland Visigothic Spain. There was a noble class, a class of
free persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally
slaves. The aristocracy itself was poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than
elsewhere. Aside from the richest and most powerful of the dukes and the king
himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish
counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class
(a far cry from the provincial Frankish aristocrat who held a vast swathe of
land hundreds of times larger than the nearest man beneath him). The
aristocracy by the 8th century was highly dependent on the king for means of
income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred
in contemporary documents as iudices (judges) even when their offices had
important military and legislative functions as well.
The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far
more numerous than in Frankland, especially in the 8th century, when they are
almost invisible in the surviving documentary evidence for the latter.
Smallholders, owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of
person in surviving diplomata for the Lombard kingdom. They may have owned more
than half of the land in Lombard Italy. The freemen were exercitales and viri
devoti, that is, soldiers and "devoted men" (a military term like
"retainers"); they formed the levy of the Lombard army and they were, if
infrequently, sometimes called to serve, though this seems not to have been
their preference. The small landed class, however, lacked the political
influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and
legislation of the kingdom. The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful
politically if not economically in Italy than in contemporary Gaul and Spain.
The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was
characterised by the cittŕ ad
isole (or "city as
islands"). It appears from archaeology that the great cities of Lombard
Italy — Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan — were themselves formed of very
minute islands of urbanisation within the old Roman city walls. The cities of
the Roman Empire had been partially destroyed in the series of wars of the 5th
and 6th centuries. Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments became
fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the Roman Forumbecame the campo vaccinio: the field of
cows. The portions of the cities that remained intact were small and modest and
contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously decorated) and a few
public buildings and townhomes of the aristocracy. Few buildings of importance
were stone, most were wood. In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were
separated from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city walls.
[edit]Lombard states
·
Lombard state on the Carpathians (6th
century)
·
Lombard state in Pannonia (6th century)
·
Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the
Lombards
·
Principality of
Benevento and List
of Dukes and Princes of Benevento
·
Principality of
Salerno and List of Princes
of Salerno
·
Principality of Capua and List of Princes of
Capua
[edit]Religious
history
[edit]Paganism
St. Barbatus of Benevento observed
many pagan rituals and traditions amongst the Lombards authorised by the Duke Romuald,
son ofKing Grimoald:[56]
"They expressed a religious
veneration to a golden viper, and prostrated themselves before it: they paid
also a superstitious honour to a tree, on which they hung the skin of a wild
beast, and these ceremonies were closed by public games, in which the skin
served for a mark at which bowmen shot arrows over their shoulder."
The earliest indications of Lombard religion
show that they originally worshipped the Germanic gods of the Vanir pantheon while in Scandinavia. After
settling along the Baltic coast, through contact with other Germans they
adopted the cult of the Aesir gods, a shift that represented a
cultural change from an agricultural society into a warrior society.[citation needed]
After their migration into Pannonia, the
Lombards had contact with the Iranian Sarmatians. From these people they borrowed a
long-lived custom once of religious symbolism. A long pole surmounted by the
figure of a bird, usually a dove, derived from the standards used in battle,
was placed by the family in the ground at the home of a man who had died far
afield in war and who could not be brought home for funeral and burial. Usually
the bird was oriented so as to point in the direction of the suspected site of
the warrior's death.[citation needed]
[edit]Christianisation
While still in Pannonia, the Lombards were
touched first by Christianity, but only touched: Their conversion and
Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete. During the reign of Wacho,
they were Roman Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, butAlboin converted
to Arianism as
an ally of the Ostrogoths and
invaded Italy. All these Christian conversions affected, for the most part,
only the aristocracy, for the common people remained pagan.[citation needed]
In Italy, the Lombards were intensively
Christianised and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was great. With the
Bavarian queenTheodelinda, a
Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy Catholic influence. After an
initial support for the anti-Rome party in theSchism of the
Three Chapters, Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter
of Pope Gregory I. In 603, Adaloald, the heir to the throne, received a
Catholic baptism. During the next century, Arianism and paganism continued to
hold out in Austria (the
northeast of Italy) and the Duchy of Benevento. A succession of Arian kings
were militarily aggressive and presented a threat to the Papacy in Rome. In the
7th century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still
practising pagan rituals, such as sacrifices in "sacred" woods. By
the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the Lombards were more or
less completely Catholicised. Under Liutprand,
the Catholicism became real[clarification
needed] as
the king sought to justify his title rex
totius Italiae by uniting the
south of the peninsula with the north and bringing together his Italo-Roman and
Germanic subjects into one Catholic state.
The Rule of Saint
Benedict in Beneventan
(i.e. Lombard) script
[edit]Beneventan Christianity
The Duchy and eventually Principality of
Benevento in southern Italy developed a unique Christian ritein
the 7th and 8th centuries. The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the
liturgy of theAmbrosian rite than the Roman rite. The Beneventan rite has not
survived in its complete form, although most of the principal feasts and several
feasts of local significance are extant. The Beneventan rite appears to have
been less complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the
Roman rite.
Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-influenced chant
that bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant of Lombard Milan. Beneventan chant is
largely defined by its role in the liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many
Beneventan chants were assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian
chantbooks, appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions, for
example. It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant in the 11th century.
The chief centre of Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one of the first and greatest
abbeys ofWestern monasticism. Gisulf II of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to
Montecassino in 744 and that became the basis for an important state, the Terra Sancti
Benedicti, which was a subject only to Rome. The Cassinese
influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense. Montecassino was also
the starting point for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism: the
use of the distinct Beneventan script, a clear, angular scrip
derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards.
[edit]Art and architecture
During their nomadic phase, the Lombards
created little in the way of art that was not easily carried with them, like
arms and jewellery. Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears
resemblance to the similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of northern and
central Europe from the same era.
The first major modifications to the Germanic
style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially in Italy, under the
influence of local,Byzantine,
and Christian styles. The conversions from nomadism
and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of
artistic expression, such as architecture (especially churches) and its
accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes).
Lombard shield boss
northern Italy, 7th Cen.Metropolitan Museum of Art
·
Lombard S-Fibula
·
A glass Drinking horn from Castel Trosino
·
Lombard Goldblattkreuz
·
Lombard Fibulae
·
Altar of Ratchis
[edit]Architecture
The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda
Main
article: Lombard architecture
Few Lombard buildings have survived. Most
have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point and so preserve little of
their original Lombard structure. Lombard architecture has been well-studied in
the 20th century, and Arthur Kingsley
Porter's four-volume Lombard
Architecture (1919) is a
"monument of illustrated history."
The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest
preserved pieces of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard
city in Italy. Parts of Lombard constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel
d'Oro, crypts ofSant'Eusebio and San
Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral).
The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda near Bergamo and
the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also
have Lombard elements. All these building are in northern Italy (Langobardia
major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in southern Italy
(Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa
Sofia inBenevento was
erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II.
It preserves Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the
columns.
Through the impulse given by the Catholic
monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand,
and Desideriusto the foundation of monasteries to
further their political control, Lombard architecture flourished.Bobbio Abbey was
founded during this time.
Some of the late Lombard structures of the
9th and 10th century have been found to contain elements of style associated
withRomanesque
architecture and have
been so dubbed "first Romanesque".
These edifices are considered, along with some similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a transitory phase between
the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged Romanesque.
[edit]See also
|
|
·
Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.)
[edit]References
|
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lombards |
Notes
1.
^ a b Priester, 16. From the Old Germanic Winnan, meaning "fighting",
"winning".
2.
^ a b c d Harrison, D.; Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9 p. 74
3.
^ CG,
II.
4.
^ Menghin,
13.
5.
^ Priester, 16. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,
I, 336. Old
Germanic for "Strenuus",
"Sibyl".
6.
^ Priester,
16
7.
^ Hammerstein-Loxton,
56.
10.
^ OGL, appendix 11.
11.
^ Priester, 17
12.
^ PD, I, 9.
13.
^ Pohl and Erhart. Nedoma, 449–445.
14.
^ Priester, 17.
15.
^ Fröhlich, 19.
16.
^ Bruckner, 30–33.
18.
^ Strabo, VII, 1, 3. Menghin, 15.
19.
^ Wegewitz, Das langobardische Brandgräberfeld von
Putensen, Kreis Harburg (1972),
1–29. Problemi della civilita e dell'economia
Longobarda,
Milan (1964), 19ff.
20.
^ Menghin, 17.
21.
^ Menghin, 18.
22.
^ Priester, 18.
23.
^ Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 106. Schmidt, 5.
24.
^ a b Tacitus, Ann. II, 45.
25.
^ Tacitus, Germania, 38-40; Tacitus, Annals,
II, 45.
26.
^ Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 17.
27.
^ Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 9. Menghin, 15.
28.
^ Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 17. Menghin, 15
29.
^ Codex Gothanus, II.
30.
^ Cassius Dio, 71, 3, 1. Menghin 16.
31.
^ Priester, 21. Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt,
35–36.
32.
^ a b Priester, 14. Menghin, 16.
33.
^ Hartmann, II, pt I, 5.
34.
^ Menghin, 17, 19. Codex Gothanus, II.
35.
^ Zeuss, 471. Wiese, 38. Schmidt, 35–36.
Priester, 21–22. HGL, X.
36.
^ Hammerstein-Loxton, 56. Bluhme. HGL, XIII.
37.
^ Cosmographer of Ravenna, I, 11.
38.
^ Hodgkin, Ch. V, 92. HGL, XII.
39.
^ Schmidt, 49.
40.
^ Hodgkin, V, 143.
41.
^ Menghin, Das Reich an der Donau, 21.
42.
^ K. Priester, 22.
43.
^ Bluhme, Gens Langobardorum Bonn, 1868
44.
^ Menghin, 14.
45.
^ Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII
46.
^ Hist. gentis Lang., Ch. XVII.
47.
^ PD, XVII.
48.
^ a b Peters, Edward (2003). History of the Lombards: Translated by
William Dudley Foulke.
University of Pennsylvania Press.
49.
^ "The New Cambridge Medieval History: c.
500-c. 700" by Paul Fouracre and Rosamond McKitterick (page 8)
50.
^ Lot, Ferdinand (1931). The End of the Ancient World and the
Beginnings of the Middle Ages. London.
51.
^ a b c Vidmar, Jernej. "Od kod prihajajo in kdo so solkanski Langobardi [From Where Come and
Who Are the Solkan Lombards]" (in Slovene). Retrieved 30 July 2012.
52.
^ Štih, Peter; Simoniti, Vasko; Vodopivec,
Peter (2008). "The
Settlement of the Slavs". In Lazarević, Žarko. A Slovene history: society - politics -
culture.
Ljubljana: Institute of Modern History. p. 22. ISBN 978-961-6386-19-7.
53.
^ Kortmann, Bernd (2011). The Languages and Linguistics of Europe:
Vol.II.
Berlin.
54.
^ Schmidt, 76–77.
55.
^ Schmidt, 47 n3.
56.
^ Rev. Butler, Alban (1866). The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other
Principal Saints: Vol.I. London.
Bibliography
·
Cosmographer of Ravenna
·
Historia langobardorum
codicis Gothani
·
Historia Langobardorum
·
Origo gentis Langobardorum
·
Bluhme, Friedrich. Gens Langobardorum
·
Bruckner, Wilhelm. Die Sprache der Langobarden
·
Christie,
Neil (1995). The Lombards: the ancient Longobards. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell.
·
Everett,
Nicholas (2003). Literacy in Lombard Italy, C. 568-774. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-81905-9, 9780521819053.
·
Fröhlich, Harmann. Studien zur langobardischen
Thronfolge - Zur Herkunft der Langobarden -
Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken (QFIAB)
·
Giess, Hildegard. "The Sculpture of the Cloister of Santa Sofia in
Benevento",The Art Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 3. (September
1959), pp 249–256.
·
Grimm. Deutsche
Mythologie
·
Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) - The Cambridge Medieval History:
Volume II—The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire.
Cambridge University Press, 1926.
·
Hallenbeck, Jan T. "Pavia and
Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth Century" Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society New
Series, 72.4 (1982),
pp. 1–186.
·
Hammerstein-Loxten, Freiherren von. Bardengau
·
Hartmann, Ludo Moritz. Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter
II Vol.
·
Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and her Invaders. Clarendon Press
·
Menghin, Wilifred. Die Langobarden / Geschichte und
Archäologie. Theiss
·
Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476-918. London,
1914.
·
Pohl, Walter and Erhart, Peter. Die Langobarden / Herrschaft und
Identität
·
Priester, Karin. Geschichte der Langobarden /
Gesellschaft - Kultur - Altagsleben. Theiss
·
Rothair;
Grimwald; Liutprand; Ratchis; Aistulf; Katherine Fischer
Drew (Translator, Editor); Edward Peters (Foreword) (1973). The Lombard Laws. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1055-7.
·
Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and
Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare. 2004. ISBN 0-8133-9153-9
·
Schmidt, Dr. Ludwig. Älteste Geschichte der Langobarden
·
Tacitus. Annals
·
Tacitus. Germania
·
Wegewitz, Willi. Das Langobardische brandgräberfeld
von Putensen, Kreise Harburg
·
Wickham, Christopher (1998). "Aristocratic Power in
Eighth-Century Lombard Italy". In Goffart, Walter A.; Murray, Alexander
C.. After Rome's Fall: Narrators and Sources of
Early Medieval History, Essays presented to Walter Goffart. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press. pp. 153–170. ISBN 0-8020-0779-1.
·
Wiese, Rbert Die aelteste Geschichte der
Langobarden
·
Zeuss, Kaspar. Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXrrcZWvuAY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5a4V5fy_kQ
Vocabulaire d'Anglais
Leçon d'Anglais Gratuite par Email. Apprenez l'Anglais 5
mins par Jour.
Englishtown.com/Anglais-Gratuit
Lombards (lŏm`bərdz,
–bärdz), ancient Germanic people. By
the 1st cent. A.D. the
The
Bibliography
See T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, Vol. V and VI (1895, repr. 1967); P.
Villari, Barbarian Invasions
of Italy (2 vol., tr. 1902);
J. T. Hallenbeck, Pavia and
Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth Century (1982).
The
Kerala, God's Own Country
Explore Serene Beaches, Backwaters, Hill Stations &
Exotic Wildlife!
www.keralatourism.org
Warning! The following article is from The
Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated or ideologically biased.
Lombards
a Germanic tribe.
In the first century A.D. the
In the late sixth to
mid-seventh centuries the
By the mid-eighth
century royal authority under the Lombards had weakened. An effort by Liudprand
and Aistulf to draw support from the Catholic clergy also failed to strengthen
their power. The Lombards’ expansionist policy (seizure of Ravenna in 751 and
an attempt to capture Rome) ended in failure, which to a certain extent was
caused by the intervention of the Franks, who were in alliance with the papacy.
In 773–774, under Desiderius (reigned in 756–774), the kingdom of the Lombards
was conquered by Charlemagne.
REFERENCE
Istorila
Italii, vol. 1. Moscow, 1970. (Contains a
bibliography.)
L. A. KOTEL’NIKOVA
. LANGOBARDS, HEAĐOBARDS
AND DANES
Before you read this
post you should read my post about the Proto-Germanic people:
http://www.keyoghettson.com/2010/11/proto-germanic-people_30.html
The Langobards and
the Heađobards were probably the same people. I think Skĺne was the original
homeland of the Langobards. Origo Gentis Langobardorum (7th century) and
Historia Langobardorum (8th century) tell the history of the Langobards.
According to these texts the Langobards were originally called Winnili and
their original homeland was called Scadan/Scadanan. According to Historia
Langobardorum the Winnili split into three groups. One of the groups left their
original homeland. This group would later become the Langobards. I think the
Heađobards were the Winnili that remained.
This is how Scadan/Scadanan is described in Historia Langobardorum:
This island then, as those who have examined it have related to us, is not so
much placed in the sea as it is washed about by the sea waves which encompass
the land on account of the flatness of the shores.
According to ancient writers the Langobards dwelt near the mouth of the river
Elbe at the beginning of the Common Era. The place-names Bardengau and Bardowick
in what today is northern Germany most likely derive from the name of the
Langobards. It can hardly be said of neither Bardengau or Bardowick that it is
surrounded by sea waves. Skĺne on the other hand fit the description very well.
In ancient texts Scandinavia is refered to as an island. Skĺne (aka Scania) and
Scandinavia have the same etymology. It's two different forms of the same name.
Originally it was the name for Skĺne. Later it became the name for all of
Scandinavia. The Old Norse name for Skĺne was Skáney. The second segment of
Skáney means island. The Old English name for Skĺne was Scedenig. The second
segment of the name represents Old English īġ that means island. Note
the similarity between Scadan/Scadanan and Scedenig.
Beowulf (8th century) is an Old English poem. The text mention a feud between
the Danes and the Heađobards. According to the text the Danes killed the
Heađobard king Froda. The Danish king sent his daughter to marry Froda's son
Ingeld to end the feud. One of the Heađobards urged the other Heađobards to
avenge Froda. Widsith (9th century) is another Old English poem. The text also
mentions the feud between the Danes and the Heađobards. According to the text
the Danes defeated the Heađobards. In later Scandinavian texts Froda is
referred to as a Danish king. The later Scandinavian texts mention the feud but
not the Heađobards. The Heađobards had either been forgotten by then
or the Heađobards were deliberately erased from history by the the Danes. Froda
was not a Danish king. Froda was a Heađobard king.
The Heađobard that urged the other Heađobards to avenge Froda was
Starkad/Starkodder. There used to be a mound in northwestern Skĺne called
Starkodder's mound. In the 12th century a historian working for the Danish
archbishop Absalon wrote that Starkad killed Angantyr and his brothers.
According to the text this happened in northwestern Skĺne not far from
Starkodder's mound. According to the legend there used to be a stone circle
marking out the spot where it happened. According to the Annales Ryenses (13th
century), it was still possible to see Starkad's sword in the water beneath the
bridge of Boilyngh when the water was low. Later this spot was located to Rönne
river in northwestern Skĺne. In the 16th century people talked of the Stones of
Starkad at Vegeholm also in northwestern Skĺne. The Danish folklorist Axel
Olrik and Arthur Stille recorded many recent traditions about Starkad in
northwestern Skĺne.
The Ćthelweard Chronicle (10th century) tell the history of the Anglo-Saxons.
According to the text the Anglo-Saxon kings decendeded from a Langobard king
called Scef. According to the text Scef came in a boat as a child to Scani.
Scani means Skĺne. Later on Scef became king of the land. Widsith mentions a
Langobard king called Sceafa. The same story that can be found in the
Ćthelweard Chronicle can also be found in Beowulf. According to the Beowulf
text Scyld Scefing came in a boat as a child to Scedenigge/Scedelandum. The Old
English name for Skĺne was Scedenig. Scedelandum means the Scanian lands. The
old name for Skĺneland was Skĺnelandene. Skĺnelandene means the Scanian lands.
Later on Scyld Scefing became king of the land. Scyld means shield. The Bjäre
peninsula and the Kullen peninsula in northwestern Skĺne form a bay called
Skälderviken. There is a town on the cost with the same name. The first segment
of Skälderviken means shield. The second segment of the name means bay.
The area around Växjö in southern Smĺland.
Close-up of the area around Dänningelanda.
De origine actibusque Getarum (6th century) tell the history of the Goths.
According to the text the Danes were the same people as the Swedes. In the area
around Växjö in southern Smĺland there are place-names like Dänningelanda,
Dänninge, Dänningeborg and Danneborg. The first segment of all these
place-names have the same etymology as Dan. Dänn- is an archaic form of Dan.
There is no other place in Scandinavia where you find a cluster of place-names
like that. In Denmark place-names like that are virtually absent. In the same
area in southern Smĺland you also find place-names like Yngslanda, Inglinge,
Inglinge hög, Ingelstad and Uppsala. The Ynglings were a legendary dynasty of
Swedish kings. Uppsala were the residence of the Swedish kings. According to De
origine actibusque Getarum the Heruli were expelled from their native homeland
by the Danes. I think the Danes migrated south from their original homeland. As
the Danes migrated south they came into conflict with the Heathobards and the
Heruli. The Heađobards were subdued and the Heruli were expelled.
Smĺland is a province in southern Sweden. Smĺland borders to Skĺne. Forna
Rijdghiöta eller Smĺlendske Antiqviteter is a text that tell the history of
Smĺland. The text was written by Petter Rudbeck in the 17th century. The text
is based on myths, songs and legends from Smĺland. According to the text a
Geatish king called Eric I sent people from Smĺland to colonize what is today
Denmark. According to the text it was these people that became the
Danes. The same story can be found in a text called Historia de omnibus
gothorum sueonumque regibus. The text was written by Johannes Magnus in the
16th century. Historia de omnibus gothorum sueonumque regibus tell the history
of the Swedes. In the text there is a song called the Ballad of Eric. According
to the song a Geatish king called Eric sent troops south to colonize land that
had not yet been cultivated. Later a Geatish king named Humli sent his son Dan
to rule the settlers. The land was named Denmark after Dan. According to
Johannes Magnus the Ballad of Eric was widely sung among the peasantry in
Sweden at the time.
KEYO GHETTSON 0 comments 
Labels: Anglo-Saxons, Beowulf, Danes, danskere, Germanic tribes, Heađobards, Heruli, langobarder,Langobards, Lombards, longobarder, Longobardi, Longobards, Scania, Skĺne, Smĺland, Starkad,
|
|
|
|||||
|
Langobards (Lombards) The Germanic Langobards (or Langobardi) originated in and above
northern Silesia (now western Poland) as part of the Sueviconfederation of tribes. It is possible that they, like the Goths, had earlier origins in southern Scandinavia and were forced to migrate due to population expansion. They were also
known by their original ethnic name, the Winnili ('Winn' probably being
Germanic for 'striving' and 'being victorious', added to an 'il/el'
diminutive suffix and a Latin plural, '-il', producing something along the
lines of 'the little tribe that succeeds in fighting' or 'the little
winners'). The later name of that part of the tribe that apparently migrated
out of Scandinavia was the Langobards, or 'hound clan'. Their founder is
sometimes named as Sceafa Longbeardum, the Sceaf of Angeln who perhaps is confused with an early Langobard ruler of the same
name, or hints at an early connection between the two tribes during (or
before) their sojourn on the southern Baltic coastline in the first and
second centuries AD. The Langobards played little part in the downfall of the Roman empire. Separated from the main Suebian host, they migrated south in
the sixth century, filling the gap left on the north bank of the Danube in Hungary by the collapse of the Huns. After being used as a mercenary army by the Byzantine empire, the Lombards began to invade northern Italy. Few Langobard leaders are known before the tribe entered into northern
Italy, but Paul the Deacon's Historia
Langobardorum, which was taken in part from the Origo Gentis Langobardorum,
around the middle of the seventh century, does paint a creditable story of
their origins in northern central Europe. As a member of a long-established
Lombard family in Italy, he was well placed to be able to access tribal folk
tales, but his claim that the name 'Langobard' pertains to the length of the
beards worn by the men is fanciful. A modern theory which contradicts the
reasoning that the name means 'hound clan' suggests that it instead stems
from one of the names of Odin, and was taken when the tribe made a conscious
switch to the worship of that god. (Additional information by Edward Dawson.) |
||||||
|
1st
century BC? |
Paul the Deacon attests that, due to population pressure in southern
Scandinavia, a small tribe named the Winnili divide their number into three
parts and chose by lot which part will leave (a practice that is typical in
German folk tales). Two leaders, Ibo and Alo, are appointed to command the
unlucky part and they lead it to the southern shores of the Baltic Sea in the
region between the Elbe and the Oder, where they resettle. Their landing
place is Scoringa, which, by common agreement, is thought to mean
'shoreline'. Prosper of Aquitaine names the leaders as Iborea and Agio, while Saxo-Grammaticus calls
them Ebbo and Aggo, and the popular song of Gothland names them as Ebbe and
Aaghe. The event, if it happens at all, is undatable, but could be placed
after the large-scale incursion of the sea into Jutland between 120-114 BC, which triggered population movements in
Scandinavia. |
|||||
|
|
Ibo |
Joint
leader during the exodus from Scandinavia. |
||||
|
|
Aio |
Brother and co-leader. |
||||
|
|
Scoringa is part of the territory of the Vandali. Their chieftains, Ambri and Assi, demand tribute, with the threat of
war against this small upstart tribe if it is not paid. The Winnili refuse to
be cowed and chose war, Legend has it that the Winnili women join the battle
line, with their long hair tied forwards in front of their faces to resemble
long beards.
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
8
- 6 BC |
Migrations of Marcomanni from the region of northern Bavaria and the River Main lead them to the former homeland of the Boii in Bohemia. The Marcomanni king, Maroboduus, forms a confederation of tribes
which includes Langobards, Lugii, Marcomanni, and Senones. Possibly this incorporates remnants of the
alliances of Ariovistus of the Suevi in 58 BC. Thanks to this event it would seem that the Langobards, if
they really had originated in Scandinavia, had migrated into central Europe
before even the Goths. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
AD
5 - 6 |
Roman Emperor Tiberius undertakes campaigns against various German tribes in
an effort to extend the frontiers of the empire from the Rhine to the Elbe.
At this time the Langobards dwell between the Weser and the lower Elbe. They
are described by court historian Velleius Paterculus as 'more fierce than
ordinary German savagery,' when they take part in attacks led by the
Marcomanni. Their
power is broken by the legions of Tiberius. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
17
- 19 |
War breaks out between Arminius of the Cherusci and Maroboduus of the Marcomanni. The cause is Maroboduus' decision
not to join the Cherusci-Roman war of AD 9 in common cause with his fellow Germans. Now the Cherusci
join with some of Maroboduus' own Suevi subjects, the Langobards and the Semnones, to stage a revolt against
his power. Following an indecisive battle, Maroboduus withdraws into
territory that later forms Bohemia. |
|||||
|
20 |
Strabo places the Langobards near the mouth of the Elbe. They are in
frequent and close relations with theHermunduri and Semnones, two great Suevic tribes who dwell higher up the stream. Strabo seems to suggest that in
his time the Hermunduri and Langobards had been driven from the left to the
right bank of the Elbe. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
47 |
After the nobility of the Cherusci has been destroyed by internal conflict, a Roman-educated prince is appointed as their king. However, he soon falls
out of favour with his people and they attempt to expel him. The Langobards,
previously a minor tribe under the dominance of the once-mighty Cherusci and
Marcomanni, now appear on the scene with enough authority and strength to
impose the restoration of the deposed king. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
98 |
In his work on Greater Germania, the Roman writer Tacitus locates the Langobards in western central Europe, on
the right bank of the Elbe (supporting Strabo's view). Accounted as being
part of the Suevi confederation, they occupy territory immediately south of the Saxons (with the Angles to the north-east), and with the Frisians on their western flank. The neighbouring Cherusci are located further south. Their numbers are few in relation to their
bigger neighbours but they maintain their independence with an attitude of
warfare over submission. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
c.150 |
Ptolemy, who writes in the mid-second century, places the Langobards
back on the left bank of the Elbe, between the Chauci and the Suevi. He also has a group of them, the Suebic Langobards, occupying territory
to the north of the Sicambri in the Rhineland. This seems to suggest either
that they have expanded or that a smaller splinter group has migrated
westwards. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
c.160 |
According to Cassius Dio, just before the Marcomannic Wars that begin
in 166, a host of 6,000 Langobards and Ubii cross the Danube and invade
Pannonia. The two tribes are defeated by Rome and halt their attacks. They send Ballomar, king of the Marcomanni, as
their ambassador to Aelius Bassus, the governor of Pannonia. The two agree
peace terms and the Langobards and Ubii are allowed to cross back across the
Danube. The Langobards return to their territory on the lower Elbe. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
c.166
- c.300 |
The Langobards disappear from the historical record. One theory to
explain the reason involves their occupation of territory that is so deep
into the interior of Inner Germania that they are obscured by the growing
tribal confederations that lie closer to the Roman empire. Another is their possible subjugation by one of those newly
forming tribal confederations, that of the Saxons. The latter idea is supported by an entry in the Codex Gothanuswhich states
that the Langobards are subjugated by the Saxons around 300. |
|||||
|
c.300
- c.375 |
According to the Codex
Gothanus, the Langobards rise up against the Saxons under their own king, Agelmund. The reason may be the poor harvests
that they suffer in the late fourth century. The Langobards begin to migrate
southwards, but Ludo Moritz Hartmann suggests that they probably leave behind
a sizable portion of their number, with these people being fully subsumed
within the Saxon confederation and losing their name. |
|||||
|
fl c.375 - c.415? |
Agelmund |
King
of the Langobards. Reigned 40 years. Killed in an ambush. |
||||
|
390s |
The Langobards descend southwards from the Elbe and enter into Moravia.
|
|||||
|
406
- 409 |
The bulk of the Suevi cross the Rhine at Mainz in 406 in association with the Vandali and Alans. After spending two years ravaging Gaul and migrating southwards into Aquitaine, all three tribes are pushed out by the Visigoths and cross the Pyrenees to settle in Roman Spain by 409, disrupting the Gallic empire of Constantine III. Some Suevi groups, including the Alemanni, remain behind on the Rhine, with some of them becoming part of the Frankishconfederation. |
|||||
|
c.415? |
Continuing to wander, the Langobards enter 'Vurgundaib', which is
believed to be the original lands of theBurgundians. Once there, the Langobards are attacked in their encampment by
'Bulgars', probably the Huns. They are defeated, their king is killed, and they are subjugated.
However, it seems that they quickly rise up under Lamicho and inflict an
unusual defeat on the Huns, although how long it takes for this to happen
after their subjugation is unclear (perhaps it is not until c.440/450). |
|||||
|
fl c.410s |
Lamicho / Lamissio /
Laiamicho |
Foster
son. See note for c.440/450. |
||||
|
fl c.420 - c.460 |
Lethu / Lethuc |
Vassal
of the Huns? Ruled for approximately 40 years. |
||||
|
c.425 |
The Langobards are to be found in Slovakia, bordering Illyria,
probably having moved there as soon as they had freed themselves from the Huns. The reign of Lethu heralds the emergence of the Langobard kings into
documented history by the end of the century. He is the founder of the
Lething dynasty of kings which provides rulers for the tribe for over a
century. |
|||||
|
c.440/450 |
The Germanic Hundings or Hundingas (the 'hound clan') are known for
their feud with the Wulfings, a clan associated with the early Danish kings. The feud is most likely to be a conflict between the Eastern Geats and the Langobards (the hound-clan), and some scholars have suggested
that Hund may be the same person as Lamicho (although the dating does not
align at all). Instead, there may be a confusion between a well-known
southern Scandinavian feud and a different one here which involves the
Langobards and their enemies, the Vulgares (Huns). The latter are defeated about this year. Coincidentally, perhaps, Lamicho's name also identifies itself with
the 'hound clan', perhaps meaning 'little barker', and the Langobards become
infamous for terrorising their enemies by claiming to have dog-headed
warriors. |
|||||
|
c.440s? |
Paul the Deacon's Historia
Langobardorum preserves
some of the history of the Langobards before their entrance into Italy. Around this time they begin to settle north of the Danube, where
they successfully defend their independence against the Huns (when the latter are at the height of their power). |
|||||
|
454 |
The fall of the Huns allows the Heruli to rise up and free themselves. They set up a strong Roman foederatikingdom of their own
in southern Moravia, from where they subdue all their neighbours, including the
Langobards, turning them into vassals. |
|||||
|
fl c.470s |
Hildeoc / Hildehoc /
Aldihoc |
Vassal of the Heruli. |
||||
|
fl c.480s |
Gudeoc / Godehoc |
Vassal of the Heruli. |
||||
|
487
- 488 |
Gudeoc rules the Langobards at the time when Romano-German general and emperor, Odoacer, destroys the Germanic Rugii, who had formerly been subjugated by the Huns. The Langobards migrate into the former Rugii territory, in modern
Lower Austria, north of the Danube, and west of Korneuburg, to fill this vacuum.
The area is part of the westernmost areas of Pannonia. The move may also be a
way of removing themselves from Herulidominance, and comes at an ideal time, as the Ostrogoths are themselves migrating into Italy for create a kingdom of their own. The Langobards clearly take note of this
last event. |
|||||
|
fl c.500 |
Claffo |
Vassal of the Heruli. |
||||
|
fl c.500? - c.510 |
Tato |
Son.
First king to be independently attested. Murdered. |
||||
|
508 |
The Heruli kingdom in southern Moravia is destroyed by Tato, ending the problem of the inconvenient Heruli
overlordship of the Langobards. Herulian fortunes wane after this disaster.
Some remaining Heruls join the Langobards in Lower Austria. Tato himself is soon murdered by Wacho, son of Unichus. Ildichus
fights on his father's side and is forced to flee to the Gepids, where he dies. |
|||||
|
c.510 |
Ildichus |
Son.
Died in exile, unable to claim the kingship. |
||||
|
fl c.510 - c.540 |
Wacho / Waccho
(Waldchis?) |
Son of Unichus. |
||||
|
530s |
After one generation, the minor federate Heruli kingdom in Singidunum (modern Belgrade) disappears from the historical
record. These 'South Heruli' merge into surrounding populations or unite with
the Langobards. |
|||||
|
c.540 |
The restless Langobards apparently enter further into Pannonia, to
their immediate east, and perhaps also into Dacia to the east of that.
|
|||||
|
c.540 - 546 |
Waltari / Walthari |
Infant
son. Last of the Lething clan of kings. |
||||
|
c.540 - 546 |
|
Audoin |
Regent. |
|||
|
546 |
Procopius says the young Waltari dies of disease, but it is equally
possible that Audoin kills him before he reaches maturity and dispenses with
the services of a regent. |
|||||
|
546 - c.565 |
Audoin / Alduin |
First
of the Gausian kings. |
||||
|
550s
- 560s |
Under Audoin, the Langobards cross the Danube to re-enter Pannonia.
Once there, they are granted subsidies by the Eastern
Roman Emperor Justinian I,
who encourages them to fight the Gepids who have established a large kingdom in Dacia. In effect, they are
being hired as foederati,
mercenaries, a role they fulfil to perfection. The Gepid kingdom is destroyed
by 567. Alboin forcibly marries Rosamund, the daughter of the Gepid king. |
|||||
|
c.565 - 568 |
Alboin |
Son.
Led the Langobards into Italy to form a kingdom. |
||||
|
568 |
The death of Eastern
Roman Emperor Justinian I
in 565 ends a period of strong rule in Italy. The advent of the Avars in south-eastern Europe triggers a wave of
migration that sees the remnants of the Gepids join the Langobards and both peoples, along with various flotsam and
jetsam, enter northern Italy. It also permanently ends Germanic dominance in
Pannonia. Following the Langobard migration southwards, a new confederation,
theBavarii, forms in their place north of the Danube, in modern south-eastern Germany. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
North Italian Kingdom of the Lombards A Germanic people, the Langobards were first noted in northern Silesia
(now western Poland) as part of the Suevi confederation of tribes. They were used as a mercenary army by the Eastern
Roman Emperor Justinian but, ejected from Pannonia by the Avars, they
invaded northern Italy after the emperor's death, diminishing the influence
of the Byzantine exarchate at Ravenna, and surrounding the 'island' dominion of Venice. They quickly became known as the Lombards, and this shortening of
their name replaced any older usage. The Lombards began to attack the established order in Italy from 568,
filling a void left by the destruction of the Ostrogoth kingdom, despite the best efforts of the Byzantine emperors to retain
complete control of Italy themselves. These attacks badly affected Rome, cutting it off from the Byzantine empire, creating famine and
causing records to be destroyed. Unlike the Ostrogoths, the Lombards did not
seek to preserve the ancient Roman methods of governance. Their kingdom in
the north, and the independent Lombard duchies to the south, introduced a
distinctly Germanic flavour to the peninsular which eventually made it little
different to much of the rest of Western Europe. |
||||||
|
568 - 573 |
Alboin |
Tribal
leader who founded the kingdom. Murdered. |
||||
|
569 |
The first Roman city to fall is that of Forum Iulii (now Cividale de
Friuli), with small Eastern
Roman defensive forces
from Ravenna unable to offer any viable opposition (and perhaps not even bothering
to try). Alboin creates the first Lombard duchy here, the duchy of Friuli,
which he hands over to his nephew, Gisulf. The duchy will also form the
kingdom's northern defensive line against possible incursions from outside
Italy, especially by the Avars. In the same year, Vicenza, Verona and Brescia
also fall to Alboin, followed by a great prize in the capture of Milan. |
|||||
|
570
- 571 |
Despite the arrival at Ravenna of a new exarch, the Lombards continue in their successful conquest of
Italy. Territorial gains to the south of the exarchate of Ravenna are
formalised in the shape of the duchies of Beneventoand Spoleto, although these quickly become independent of the Lombard kingdom
itself. Rome is temporarily isolated during this period and records destroyed,
leaving little information about the pontificate of John III. |
|||||
|
572 |
After a siege lasting three years, the city of Pavia falls to the
Lombards. They make it the first capital of their new kingdom. Although Ravenna manages to retain control of the region around this imperial city, and
also re-securesRome through a narrow corridor of territory running through Perugia, the
Lombards still have free access to southern Italy and their conquests there. The new kingdom is divided into thirty-six duchies, each based around
a Roman city, most of which owe direct allegiance to the king. However, this
form of rule makes the kingdom structurally weaker, even more so than
Byzantine Italy once the exarchate begins to recover, and becomes a serious
problem in the eighth century. The duchies include those of Asti, Bergamo,
Brescia, Ceneda, Friuli, Pavia, San Giulio, Tridentum (Trent), Turin, Tuscia,
Verona, and Vicenza, plus the independent Benevento and Spoleto in the south. Other regions such as Lugano in the very north are also brought under Lombard control.
|
|||||
|
573 |
Bizarrely, after all the warfare of his reign, Alboin is murdered in
Verona as part of a plot by his wife, Rosamund. This is possibly an act of
revenge by Rosamund, whose father Kunimund had been the last ruler of the Gepidkingdom prior to its destruction by the Langobards, after which she
had been forced to marry Alboin. Now Rosamund marries her chief accomplice, the king's foster brother
and bearer of arms, Helmichis, and the two attempt to rule the kingdom. They
are quickly dissuaded by the hostility of most of the Lombard warrior class,
who proclaim Duke Celph the new king. Rather than go to war, the pair flee to Ravenna with their troops, the royal treasure, and Alboin's daughter,
Albsuinda. The plot almost certainly has backing from Ravenna as it removes a
powerful figure of opposition and raises the possibility of the Eastern
Roman reconquest of Italy. |
|||||
|
573 |
Helmichis / Helmegis |
Regicide
and co-conspirator (and husband) of Rosamund. |
||||
|
573 |
|
Rosamund |
Widow
of Alboin and co-conspirator. Never actually ruled. |
|||
|
573 - 575 |
Celph / Clef |
Lombard
duke, proclaimed king. Assassinated. |
||||
|
575
- 584 |
Celph enjoys a ruthless reign of just eighteen months before he, too,
is assassinated. The act is probably carried out by a slave, and is probably
due to plotting by Ravenna, as a disunited Lombard kingdom suits their hopes of reconquest
perfectly. No successor to Celph is proclaimed. Instead, the 'rule of the dukes'
is instigated, in which each duke rules his own portion of northern Italy and
there is no overall ruler. There is also little unity, and the period lasts
either ten or twelve years (574-585), witnessing a general breakdown of law
and order across the country. |
|||||
|
584/585 |
The Lombards invade the Merovingian Frankish region of Provence. In return the Frankish king of Austrasia, Childebert II, and Guntramn, king of Burgundy, invade Lombard Italy, or Lombardy, as it is starting to be known.
They capture Trent and open negotiations with the Eastern
Roman emperor via Ravenna, perhaps with the view of carving up Italy between them. The
Lombards, fearing Frankish domination, elect a king to end their disunity. He
is ceded Pavia and half the ducal domains, and is successful in throwing out
the invaders and restoring the strength of the kingdom. This reconsolidation
confirms the partitioning of the peninsula which will remain effective in one
form or another until the final unification of Italy in 1871. |
|||||
|
584 - 590 |
Autharis |
Son. |
||||
|
589
- 590 |
Having lived an almost fully independent existence in the south since
his arrival, Zottone submits to the authority of King Autharis in the north,
although the kingdom has rarely exerted any influence as far south as
Zottone's territory. In, or by, 590, the duchy of Benevento is formally established under Zottone. |
|||||
|
590 - 591 |
Theodelinda |
Wife.
m Agilulf and became his queen. Also regent (615-625). |
||||
|
590
- 591 |
Upon the death of Autharis, his queen, Theodelinda, rules briefly
before marrying her husband's cousin in 591 and becoming his queen. She is
the daughter of Duke Garibald I of Bavaria and is a Nicene Christian, an adherent of the Roman
Church. She also is a very important
figure in terms of increasing the importance and reach of the Catholic church
in Italy over Arian Christianity. Thanks in large part to her efforts in
winning converts the church at Rome is able to secure its primacy in Italy
and can begin to focus its attention on making fresh converts elsewhere. |
|||||
|
591 - 615 |
Agilulf |
Cousin
of Autharis. Duke of Turin. |
||||
|
601
- 603 |
Agilulf fights a successful series of campaigns against rebel dukes in
northern Italy, capturing Padua in 601, and Cremona and Mantua in 603. He is
also successful in forcing the exarch of Ravenna to pay a sizable tribute. |
|||||
|
615 - 625 |
Adaloald |
Son.
Went insane and was deposed by the nobles. |
||||
|
615 - 625 |
|
Theodelinda |
Mother
and regent, and widow of Autharis and Agilulf. |
|||
|
625 - 636 |
Arioald |
Son-in-law.
Duke of Turin. An Arian. |
||||
|
636 - 652 |
Rotharis / Rothari |
Duke of Brescia. |
||||
|
643 |
One of the most active of Lombard kings since Alboin, Rotharis
conquers the surviving Eastern
Roman territories of
Linguria (Liguria) and Inner Veneto, dealing another blow to the fading authority
of the exarch at Ravenna. He also codifies the laws and customs of the Lombards in the Edictum Rothari. |
|||||
|
652 - 653 |
Rodoald |
Son.
Very young, and was killed by the pro-Catholic party. |
||||
|
652 - 661 |
Aribert I / Aripert I |
Son
of Gundoald, duke of Asti. |
||||
|
661 |
The death of Aribert sees the kingdom divided in two, with one half
going to Bertharit and the other to Godepert. The former has his capital at
Milan while the latter is based at Pavia. The move is disastrous in terms of
maintaining the security of the kingdom. |
|||||
|
661 |
Godepert |
Son.
Ruled from Pavia. Assassinated. |
||||
|
661 - 662 |
|
Bertharit / Perctarit |
Brother.
Ruled from Milan. Usurped by Grimoald and fled. |
|||
|
661
- 662 |
Not content with holding half of the kingdom, Godepert almost
immediately starts a war against his brother in order that he might gain the
rest. He invites Duke Grimoald of Benevento to assist him, but the duke instead assassinates him and takes control
of his territory. With a year he has forced Bertharit to flee the kingdom and
is now king of a once-more united Lombard throne. |
|||||
|
662 - 671 |
Grimoald / Grimoaldo |
Duke of Benevento (647-662). |
||||
|
c.665 |
In return for helping Grimoald to usurp the kingdom, Count Transamund
of Capua is granted the duchy of Spoleto. Upon gaining the throne, Grimoald also promotes his son, Romoaldo,
to the position of duke of Benevento in his stead. |
|||||
|
c.666 |
Lupus |
Usurper.
Duke of Friuli (c.660-c.666). |
||||
|
c.666 |
Grimoald faces perhaps the biggest threat to his kingship while he is
fighting the Eastern
Romans in the Mezzogiorno. Having left Duke Lupus of Friuli as his regent in
the north, the duke now revolts, usurping Grimoald's authority. Grimoald is
forces to return, and Lupus is thoroughly defeated and his duchy devastated
by cooperative attacks by the Avars. Grimoald then hunts down Lupus' son,
Arnefrit, and his Slav allies, and defeats them in battle at Nimis. Arnefrit
dies during the battle and Grimoald gifts the duchy of Friuli to Wechthari,
an inveterate enemy of the Slavs. |
|||||
|
671 |
Garibald |
Son.
Ruled for three months. Deposed. |
||||
|
671 |
Bertharit returns from exile, where he has been sheltering with the Franks, in order to regain his kingdom now that Grimoald is dead. The young
Garibald offers little resistance in the face of the popular acclaim for the
returning king. |
|||||
|
671 - 688 |
Bertharit / Perctarit |
Restored
from exile in Benevento. Assassinated. |
||||
|
688
- 689 |
Alahis (Alagis), duke of Trent, rebels for a second time - the first
time had been against against Bertharit, who had pardoned and released the
captured duke. Now, upon the death of Bertharit, Alahis rebels against his
son, Cunibert, forcing the would-be king into a castle on an island in the
middle of Lake Como. The following year, Alahis has lost the support of the
nobles for his dictatorial rule and Cunibert is able to rally an army with
which he defeats and kills the usurper. |
|||||
|
688 - 689 |
Alahis / Alagis |
Duke
of Trent & Brescia, rebel, and usurper. Killed in battle. |
||||
|
689 - 700 |
Cunibert / Cinincpert |
Son of Bertharit. |
||||
|
700 - 701 |
Luitpert |
Son. Deposed by
Raginpert. |
||||
|
700 - 701 |
|
Ansprand |
Regent. Duke of Asti. |
|||
|
701 |
Raginpert |
Grand-uncle,
and son of Godepert. Duke of Turin. Died. |
||||
|
701 |
Luitpert |
Restored
by the regent. Murdered. |
||||
|
701 |
Despite Ansprand's attempts as regent to retain the throne for
Luitpert, he and his men are defeated in battle by Aribert at Pavia. Luitpert
is later strangled in his bath on the orders of Aribert II, while Ansprand is
forced to retreat over the Alps. |
|||||
|
701 - 711 |
Aribert II / Aripert II |
Son
of Raginpert. Duke of Turin. Drowned while fleeing to Gaul. |
||||
|
c.705 |
Gisulf of Benevento marches on the cities of Arce, Arpino, and Sora, and after taking them
ventures as far as Horrea, plundering and burning along the way. With the
Campania region in southern Italy lying devastated behind him, and his forces encamped near Rome, he is
persuaded through the receipt of gifts by Pope John VI to withdraw in peace. |
|||||
|
711 |
Ansprand returns with a large Bavarian army and the brutal Aribert is defeated at Pavia. He flees to his
capital and then attempts to enter Gaul along with his treasures. He drowns in the
River Ticino. |
|||||
|
711 - 712 |
Ansprand |
Former
regent. Ruled for three months before dying. |
||||
|
712 - 744 |
Liutprand |
Son. |
||||
|
724 |
In documents that are disputed in terms of their authenticity,
Liutprand cedes various properties in Lugano to the Church of Saint Carpophorus in Como. |
|||||
|
726
- 728 |
Shortly after capturing Corsica, Liutprand takes control of the exarchate of Ravenna and of Rome. Byzantineimperial authority is temporarily unrecognised in Italy, marking a
break in Constantinople's control over Rome. |
|||||
|
732 |
Entering Benevento, Liutprand removes both Duke Andelais and the usurped infant, Gisulf
II, from the throne and its succession. Instead he places his own nominee,
Gregory, on the ducal seat. |
|||||
|
738
- 740 |
Transamund of Spoleto rebels against Liutprand and forms an alliance with Pope Gregory III. The pope provides him with shelter while a substitute
duke holds power in Spoleto in 739. Transamund regains his duchy, before
being captured by Liutprand and sent forcibly to a monastery. The links
forged by Liutprand in this period effectively bind Spoleto closer to the
Lombard kingdom, with three subsequent dukes of Spoleto also ruling the
Lombards at different points in their careers. |
|||||
|
742 |
Liutprand deals with Godescalco, the unapproved duke of Benevento. The duke is already preparing to flee by ship when Liutprand enters
Benevento, but the people rise up and slay Godescalco, apparently remaining
faithful to their former duke, Rimoaldo II, and his familial succession. |
|||||
|
744 |
Hildeprand 'the Useless' |
Grandson
or nephew. Deposed due to incompetence. Soon died. |
||||
|
744 - 749 |
Ratchis / Rachis of
Friuli |
Duke of Spoleto (756-757). Abdicated. |
||||
|
749 - 756 |
Aistulf of Friuli |
Brother. Duke of Spoleto (751-756). |
||||
|
756 |
Having abdicated the throne after his misconceived siege of Perugia,
Ratchis attempts to reclaim it following the death of Aistulf. He is defeated
by Daufer and retires to a cloister. |
|||||
|
756 - 774 |
Daufer / Desiderius of
Brescia |
Duke of Spoleto (758-759). Imprisoned. |
||||
|
751
- 756 |
The Lombards subdue Ravenna, ending the exarchate, and attack Rome in 755, which is now reduced to her ancient territory from Viterbo to
Terracina, and from Narni to the mouth of the Tiber. The city is delivered by
Pepin III, king of the Franks and the Lombards are subdued the following year (756) The ex-Byzantine exarchate is handed to Rome as the Papal States and northern Italy
becomes part of the Frankish empire.
|
|||||
|
758 |
Arechi II becomes duke of Benevento. His marriage to Adelperga is notable as she is the daughter of
Daufer. This makes any children by her direct descendants of the Lombardic
kings, conferring an air of authority upon them and ensuring the line
endures. |
|||||
|
774
- 781 |
Daufer invades the papal territories, and Pope Adrian is forced to
call upon the Frankish King Charlemagne for support and aid. Charlemagne enters Italy (and Corsica) and breaks the Lombards, taking the title of 'king of the Lombards'
for himself. Daufer is imprisoned and his son, Adelchis, is forced to flee the country. Rome gains part of the Lombard duchy of Benevento out of the conquest while the rest signals its independence as a
continuation of the Lombard kingdom. In 781, Pepin, son of Charlemagne, is given command of the Italian
portion of the Frankish empire, which includes the former Lombard
territories. He also gains the iron crown of the rex Langobardum (king of the Lombards), and it
remains in use by the Frankish kings of Italy. |
|||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
||||
LANGOBARDS, HEAĐOBARDS
AND DANES
Before you read this
post you should read my post about the Proto-Germanic people:
http://www.keyoghettson.com/2010/11/proto-germanic-people_30.html
The Langobards and
the Heađobards were probably the same people. I think Skĺne was the original
homeland of the Langobards. Origo Gentis Langobardorum (7th century) and
Historia Langobardorum (8th century) tell the history of the Langobards.
According to these texts the Langobards were originally called Winnili and
their original homeland was called Scadan/Scadanan. According to Historia
Langobardorum the Winnili split into three groups. One of the groups left their
original homeland. This group would later become the Langobards. I think the
Heađobards were the Winnili that remained.
This is how Scadan/Scadanan is described in Historia Langobardorum:
This island then, as those who have examined it have related to us, is not so
much placed in the sea as it is washed about by the sea waves which encompass
the land on account of the flatness of the shores.
According to ancient writers the Langobards dwelt near the mouth of the river
Elbe at the beginning of the Common Era. The place-names Bardengau and
Bardowick in what today is northern Germany most likely derive from the name of
the Langobards. It can hardly be said of neither Bardengau or Bardowick that it
is surrounded by sea waves. Skĺne on the other hand fit the description very
well.
In ancient texts Scandinavia is refered to as an island. Skĺne (aka Scania) and
Scandinavia have the same etymology. It's two different forms of the same name.
Originally it was the name for Skĺne. Later it became the name for all of
Scandinavia. The Old Norse name for Skĺne was Skáney. The second segment of
Skáney means island. The Old English name for Skĺne was Scedenig. The second
segment of the name represents Old English īġ that means island. Note
the similarity between Scadan/Scadanan and Scedenig.
Beowulf (8th century) is an Old English poem. The text mention a feud between
the Danes and the Heađobards. According to the text the Danes killed the
Heađobard king Froda. The Danish king sent his daughter to marry Froda's son
Ingeld to end the feud. One of the Heađobards urged the other Heađobards to
avenge Froda. Widsith (9th century) is another Old English poem. The text also
mentions the feud between the Danes and the Heađobards. According to the text
the Danes defeated the Heađobards. In later Scandinavian texts Froda is
referred to as a Danish king. The later Scandinavian texts mention the feud but
not the Heađobards. The Heađobards had either been forgotten by then
or the Heađobards were deliberately erased from history by the the Danes. Froda
was not a Danish king. Froda was a Heađobard king.
The Heađobard that urged the other Heađobards to avenge Froda was Starkad/Starkodder.
There used to be a mound in northwestern Skĺne called Starkodder's mound. In
the 12th century a historian working for the Danish archbishop Absalon wrote
that Starkad killed Angantyr and his brothers. According to the text this
happened in northwestern Skĺne not far from Starkodder's mound. According to
the legend there used to be a stone circle marking out the spot where it
happened. According to the Annales Ryenses (13th century), it was still
possible to see Starkad's sword in the water beneath the bridge of Boilyngh
when the water was low. Later this spot was located to Rönne river in
northwestern Skĺne. In the 16th century people talked of the Stones of Starkad
at Vegeholm also in northwestern Skĺne. The Danish folklorist Axel Olrik and
Arthur Stille recorded many recent traditions about Starkad in northwestern
Skĺne.
The Ćthelweard Chronicle (10th century) tell the history of the Anglo-Saxons.
According to the text the Anglo-Saxon kings decendeded from a Langobard king
called Scef. According to the text Scef came in a boat as a child to Scani.
Scani means Skĺne. Later on Scef became king of the land. Widsith mentions a
Langobard king called Sceafa. The same story that can be found in the
Ćthelweard Chronicle can also be found in Beowulf. According to the Beowulf
text Scyld Scefing came in a boat as a child to Scedenigge/Scedelandum. The Old
English name for Skĺne was Scedenig. Scedelandum means the Scanian lands. The
old name for Skĺneland was Skĺnelandene. Skĺnelandene means the Scanian lands.
Later on Scyld Scefing became king of the land. Scyld means shield. The Bjäre
peninsula and the Kullen peninsula in northwestern Skĺne form a bay called
Skälderviken. There is a town on the cost with the same name. The first segment
of Skälderviken means shield. The second segment of the name means bay.
The area around Växjö in southern Smĺland.
Close-up of the area around Dänningelanda.
De origine actibusque Getarum (6th century) tell the history of the Goths.
According to the text the Danes were the same people as the Swedes. In the area
around Växjö in southern Smĺland there are place-names like Dänningelanda,
Dänninge, Dänningeborg and Danneborg. The first segment of all these
place-names have the same etymology as Dan. Dänn- is an archaic form of Dan.
There is no other place in Scandinavia where you find a cluster of place-names
like that. In Denmark place-names like that are virtually absent. In the same
area in southern Smĺland you also find place-names like Yngslanda, Inglinge,
Inglinge hög, Ingelstad and Uppsala. The Ynglings were a legendary dynasty of
Swedish kings. Uppsala were the residence of the Swedish kings. According to De
origine actibusque Getarum the Heruli were expelled from their native homeland
by the Danes. I think the Danes migrated south from their original homeland. As
the Danes migrated south they came into conflict with the Heathobards and the
Heruli. The Heađobards were subdued and the Heruli were expelled.
Smĺland is a province in southern Sweden. Smĺland borders to Skĺne. Forna
Rijdghiöta eller Smĺlendske Antiqviteter is a text that tell the history of
Smĺland. The text was written by Petter Rudbeck in the 17th century. The text
is based on myths, songs and legends from Smĺland. According to the text a
Geatish king called Eric I sent people from Smĺland to colonize what is today
Denmark. According to the text it was these people that became the
Danes. The same story can be found in a text called Historia de omnibus
gothorum sueonumque regibus. The text was written by Johannes Magnus in the 16th
century. Historia de omnibus gothorum sueonumque regibus tell the history of
the Swedes. In the text there is a song called the Ballad of Eric. According to
the song a Geatish king called Eric sent troops south to colonize land that had
not yet been cultivated. Later a Geatish king named Humli sent his son Dan to
rule the settlers. The land was named Denmark after Dan. According to Johannes
Magnus the Ballad of Eric was widely sung among the peasantry in Sweden at the
time.
Cap.1.9.
Certum tamen est, Langobardos ad intactae ferro barbae longitudine,
cum
primis Winnili dicti fuerint, ita postmodum appellatos. Nam iuxta illorum
linguam
“lang” longam, “bart” brabam significat. Wotan
sane, quem adiecta
littera Godan dixerunt, ipse est
qui apud Romanos Mercurius dicitur et ab
universis Germaniae gentibus ut
deus adoratur; qui non circa haec tempora, sed
longe anterius, nec in Germania,
sed in Graecia fuisse perhibetur.
Cap.1.10. Winnili igitur, qui et
Langobardi, commisso cum Wandalis proelio,
acritur,
utpote pro libertatis gloria, decertantes, victoriam capiunt. Qui magnam
postmodum
famis penuriam in eadem Scoringa provincia, valde animo
consternati
sunt.
The
Latin text is taken from Pauli Diaconi Historia Langobardorum, ed. Lidia
Capo,
11 editione febbraio, Fondazione Lorenzo
Valla, 1993, pp. 22-26. Frea gave her the advice that the Winnili women, having
let down their hair,
1906,
p. 18.
|
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXrrcZWvuAYHistoria
Langobardorum Origio Gentis
Langobardorum |
|||
|
|
[HOME] |
|
|
|
Late
8th century Latin Text |
|||
|
LIBER PRIMUS |
BOOK ONE |
||
|
1. Septemtrionalis plaga quanto
magis ab aestu solis remota est et nivali frigore gelida, tanto salubrior
corporibus hominum et propagandis est gentibus coaptata; sicut econtra omnis
meridiana regio, quo solis est fervori vicinior, eo semper morbis habundat et
educandis minus est apta mortalibus. Unde fit, ut tantae populorum
multitudines arctoo sub axe oriantur, ut non inmerito universa illa regio
Tanai tenus usque ad occiduum, licet et propriis loca in ea singula
nuncupentur nominibus, generali tamen vocabulo Germania vocitetur; quamvis et
duas ultra Rhenum provincias Romani, cum ea loca occupassent, superiorem
inferioremque Germaniam dixerint. Ab hac ergo populosa Germania saepe innumerabiles captivorum turmae
abductae meridianis populis pretio distrahuntur. Multae quoque ex ea, pro eo
quod tantos mortalium germinat, quantos alere vix sufficit, saepe gentes
egressae sunt, quae nihilominus et partes Asiae, sed maxime sibi contiguam
Europam afflixerunt. Testantur hoc ubique urbes erutae per totam Illyricum
Galliamque, sed maxime miserae Italiae, quae paene omnium illarum est gentium
experta saevitiam. Gothi siquidem Wandalique, Rugi, Heruli atque Turcilingi,
necnon etiam et aliae feroces et barbarae nationes e Germania prodierunt.
Pari etiam modo et Winilorum, hoc est Langobardorum, gens, quae postea in
Italia feliciter regnavit, a Germanorum populis originem ducens, licet et
aliae causae egressionis eorum asseverentur, ab insula quae Scadinavia
dicitur adventavit. |
1. The region of the north, in proportion as it is removed from the
heat of the sun and is chilled with snow and frost, is so much the more
healthful to the bodies of men and fitted for the propagation of nations,
just as, on the other hand, every southern region, the nearer it is to the
heat of the sun, the more it abounds in diseases and is less fitted for the
bringing up of the human race. From this it happens that such great multitudes
of peoples spring up in the north, and that that entire region from the
Tanais (Don) to the west (although single places in it are designated by
their own names) yet the whole is not improperly called by the general name
of Germany. The Romans, however, when they occupied those parts, called the
two provinces beyond the Rhine, Upper and Lower Germany. From this teeming
Germany then, innumerable troops of captives are often led away and sold for
gain to the people of the South. And for the reason that it brings forth so
many human beings that it can scarcely nourish them, there have frequently
emigrated from it many nations that have indeed become the scourge of
portions of Asia, but especially of the parts of Europe which lie next to it.
Everywhere ruined cities throughout all Illyria and Gaul testify to this, but
most of all in unhappy Italy which has felt the cruel rage of nearly all
these nations. The Goths indeed, and the Wandals, the Rugii, Heroli, and
Turcilingi, and also other fierce and barbarous nations have come from
Germany. In like manner also the race of Winnili, that is, of Langobards,
which afterwards ruled prosperously in Italy, deducing its origin from the
German peoples, came from the island which is called Scadinavia, although
other causes of their emigration are also alleged. |
||
|
2. Cuius insulae etiam Plinius Secundus in libris quos De natura rerum
conposuit, mentionem facit. Haec igitur insula, sicut retulerunt nobis qui
eam lustraverunt, non tam in mari est posita, quam marinis fluctibus propter
planitiem marginum terras ambientibus circumfusa. Intra hanc ergo constituti
populi dum in tantam multitudinem pullulassent, ut iam simul habitare non
valerent, in tres, ut fertur, omnem catervam partes dividentes, quae ex illis
pars patriam relinquere novasque deberet sedes exquirere, sorte perquirunt. |
2. Pliny the Second also makes mention of this island in the books
which he composed concerning the nature of things. This island then, as those
who have examined it have related to us, is not so much placed in the sea as
it is washed about by the sea waves which encompass the land on account of
the flatness of the shores. Since, therefore, the peoples established within
the island had grown to so great a multitude that they could not now dwell together,
they divided their whole troop into three parts, as is said, and determined
by lot which part of them had to forsake their country and seek new abodes. |
||
|
3. Igitur ea pars, cui sors dederat genitale solum excedere exteraque
arva sectari, ordinatis super se duobus ducibus, Ibor scilicet et Aione, qui
et germani erant et iuvenili aetate floridi et ceteris praestantiores, ad
exquirendas quas possint incolere terras sedesque statuere, valedicentes suis
simul et patriae, iter arripiunt. Horum erat ducum mater nomine Gambara,
mulier quantum inter suos et ingenio acris et consiliis provida; de cuius in
rebus dubiis prudentia non minimum confidebant. |
3. Therefore that section to which fate had assigned the abandonment
of their native soil and the search for foreign fields, after two leaders had
been appointed over them, to wit: Ibor and Aio, who were brothers, in the
bloom of youthful vigor and more eminent than the rest, said farewell to
their own people, as well as their country, and set out upon their way to
seek for lands where they might dwell and establish their abodes. The mother
of these leaders, Gambara by name, was a woman of the keenest ability and
most prudent in counsel among her people, and they trusted not a little to
her shrewdness in doubtful matters. |
||
|
4. Haud ab re esse
arbitror, paulisper narrandi ordinem postponere, et quia adhuc stilus in
Germania vertitur, miraculum, quod illic apud omnes celebre habetur, sed et
quaedam alia, breviter intimare. In extremis circium versus Germaniae finibus,
in ipso Oceani litore, antrum sub eminenti rupe conspicitur, ubi septem viri,
incertum ex quo tempore, longo sopiti sopore quiescunt, ita inlaesis non
solum corporibus, sed etiam vestimentis, ut ex hoc ipso, quod sine ulla per
tot annorum curricula corruptione perdurant, apud indociles easdem et
barbaras nationes veneratione habeantur. Hi denique, quantum ad habitum
spectat, Romani esse cernuntur. E quibus dum unum quidam cupiditate
stimulatus vellet exuere, mox eius, ut dicitur, brachia aruerunt, poenaque
sua ceteros perterruit, ne quis eos ulterius contingere auderet. Videris, ad
quod eos profectum per tot tempora providentia divina conservet. Fortasse
horum quandoque, quia non aliter nisi Christiani esse putantur, gentes illae
praedicatione salvandae sunt. |
4. I do not think it is without advantage to put off
for a little while the order of my narrative, and because my pen up to this
time deals with Germany, to relate briefly a miracle which is there
considered notable among all, as well as certain other matters. In the
farthest boundaries of Germany toward the west-northwest, on the shore of the
ocean itself, a cave is seen under a projecting rock, where for an unknown
time seven men repose wrapped in a long sleep, not only their bodies, but also
their clothes being so uninjured, that from this fact alone, that they last
without decay through the course of so many years, they are held in
veneration among those ignorant and barbarous peoples. These then, so far as
regards their dress, are perceived to be Romans. When a certain man, stirred
by cupidity, wanted to strip one of them, straightway his arms withered, as
is said, and his punishment so frightened the others that no one dared touch
them further. The future will show for what useful purpose Divine Providence
keeps them through so long a period. Perhaps those nations are to be saved
some time by the preaching of these men, since they cannot be deemed to be
other than Christians. |
||
|
5. Huic loco Scritobini, sic enim gens illa
nominatur, vicini sunt. Qui etiam aestatis tempore nivibus non carent, nec
aliud, utpote feris ipsis ratione non dispares, quam crudis agrestium
animantium carnibus vescuntur; de quorum etiam hirtis pellibus sibi indumenta
coaptant. Hi a saliendo iuxta
linguam barbaram ethimologiam ducunt. Saltibus enim utentes, arte quadam
ligno incurvo ad arcus similitudinem feras assequuntur. Apud hos est animal
cervo non satis absimile, de cuius ego corio, ut fuerat pilis hispidum,
vestem in modum tunicae genu tenus aptatam conspexi, sicut iam fati, ut
relatum est, Scritobini, utuntur. Quibus in locis circa aestivale solstitium
per aliquot dies etiam noctu clarissima lux cernitur, diesque ibi multo
maiores quam alibi habentur; sicut e contrario circa brumale solstitium,
quamvis diei lux adsit, sol tamen ibi non videtur, diesque minimi, quam
usquam alibi, noctes quoque longiores existunt; quia scilicet, quanto magis a
sole longius disceditur, tanto sol ipse terrae vicinior apparet et umbrae
longiores excrescunt. Denique in Italia, sicut et antiqui scripserunt, circa
diem Natalis Domini novem pedes in umbra staturae humanae hora sexta
metiuntur. Ego autem in Gallia Belgica in loco qui Totonis villa dicitur
constitutus, status mei umbram metiens, decem et novem et semis pedes inveni.
Sic quoque contrario modo, quanto propinquius meridiem versus ad solem
acceditur, tantum semper umbrae breviores videntur, in tantum ut solstitio
aestivali, respiciente sole de medio caeli, in Aegypto et Hierosolimis et in
eorum vicinitate constitutis locis nullae videantur umbrae. In Arabia vero
hoc ipso tempore sol supra medium caeli ad partem aquilonis cernitur,
umbraeque versa vice contra meridiem videntur. |
5. The Scritobini, for thus that nation is called, are neighbors to
this place. They are not without snow even in the summer time, and since they
do not differ in nature from wild beasts themselves, they feed only upon the
raw flesh of wild animals from whose shaggy skins also they fit garments for
themselves. They deduce the etymology of their name according to their
barbarous language from jumping. For by making use of leaps and bounds they
pursue wild beasts very skillfully with a piece of wood bent in the likeness
of a bow. Among them there is an animal not very unlike a stag, from whose
hide, while it was rough with hairs, I saw a coat fitted in the manner of a
tunic down to the knees, such as the aforesaid Scritobini use, as has been
related. In these places about the summer solstice, a very bright light is
seen for some days, even in the night time, and the days are much longer
there than elsewhere, just as, on the other hand, about the winter solstice,
although the light of day is present, yet the sun is not seen there and the
days are shorter than anywhere else and the nights too are longer, and this
is because the further we turn from the sun the nearer the sun itself appears
to the earth and the longer the shadows grow. In short, in Italy (as the
ancients also have written) about the day of the birth of our Lord, human
statures at twelve o'clock measure in shadow nine feet. But when I was
stationed in Belgic Gaul in a place which is called Villa Totonis
(Dietenhofen, Thionville) and measured the shadow of my stature, I found it
nineteen and a half feet. Thus also on the contrary the nearer we come to the
sun toward midday the shorter always appear the shadows, so much so that at
the summer solstice when the sun looks down from the midst of heaven in Egypt
and Jerusalem and the places situated in their neighborhood, no shadows may
be seen. But in Arabia at this same time the sun at its highest point is seen
on the northern side and the shadows on the other hand appear towards the
south. |
||
|
6. Nec satis procul
ab hoc de quo praemisimus litore, contra occidentalem partem, qua sine fine
Oceanum pelagus patet, profundissima aquarum illa vorago est, quam usitato
nomine maris umbilicum vocamus. Quae bis in die fluctus absorbere et rursum
evomere dicitur, sicut per universa illa litora accedentibus ac recedentibus
fluctibus celeritate nimia fieri comprobatur. Huiusmodi vorago sive vertigo a
poeta Virgilio Carybdis appellatur; quam ille in freto Siculo esse suo in
carmine loquitur, hoc modo dicens : Dextrum Scylla latus, laevum implacata
Carybdis Obsidet, atque imo baratri ter gurgite vastos Sorbet in abruptum fluctus,
rursusque sub auras Erigit alternos, et sidera verberat unda. Ab hac sane de
qua diximus vertigine saepe naves raptim cursimque adtrahi adfirmantur tanta
celeritate, ut sagittarum per aera lapsus imitari videantur; et nonnumquam in
illo baratro horrendo nimis exitu pereunt. Saepe cum iam iamque mergendae
sint, subitis undarum molibus retroactae, tanta rursus agilitate exinde
elongantur, quanta prius adtractae sunt. Adfirmant, esse et aliam huiusmodi
voraginem inter Brittaniam insulam Galliciamque provinciam; cui etiam rei
adstipulantur Sequanicae Aquitaniaeque litora; quae bis in die tam subitis
inundationibus opplentur, ut, qui fortasse aliquantulum introrsus a litore
repertus fuerit, evadere vix possit. Videas earum regionum flumina fontem
versus cursu velocissimo relabi ac per multorum milium spatia dulces fluminum
lymphas in amaritudinem verti. Triginta ferme a Sequanico litore Evodia
insula milibus distat. In qua, sicut ab illius incolis adseveratur,
vergentium in eandem Carybdin aquarum garrulitas auditur. Audivi quendam
nobilissimum Gallorum referentem, quod aliquantae naves prius tempestate
convulsae, postmodum ab hac eadem Carybdi voratae sunt. Unus autem solummodo
ex omnibus viris qui in navibus illis fuerant, morientibus ceteris, dum adhuc
spirans fluctibus supernataret, vi aquarum labentium abductus, ad oram usque
inmanissimi illius baratri pervenit. Qui cum iam profundissimum et sine fine
patens chaos aspiceret, ipsoque pavore praemortuus se illuc ruiturum
exspectaret, subito, quod sperare non poterat, saxo quodam superiectus
insedit. Decursis siquidem iam omnibus quae sorbendae erant aquis, orae
illius fuerant margines denu dati; dumque ibi inter tot angustias anxius vix
ob metum palpitans resideret, dilatamque ad modicum mortem nihilominus opperiretur,
conspicit ecce subito quasi magnos aquarum montes de profundo resilire
navesque, quae absortae fuerant, primas emergere. Cumque una ex illis ei
contigua fieret, ad eam se nisu quo potuit adprehendit; nec mora, celeri
volatu prope litus advectus, metuendae necis casus evasit, proprii postmodum
periculi relator exsistens. Nostrum quoque, id est Adriaticum, mare, quod
licet minus, similiter tamen Venetiarum Histriaeque litora pervadit,
credibile est, parvos huiusmodi occultosque habere meatus, quibus et
recedentes aquae sorbeantur et rursum invasurae litora revomantur. His ita praelibatis,
ad coeptam narrandi seriem redeamus. |
6. Not very far from this shore of which we have spoken, toward the
western side, on which the ocean main lies open without end, is that very
deep whirlpool of waters which we call by its familiar name " the navel
of the sea." This is said to suck in the waves and spew them forth again
twice every day, as is proved to be done by the excessive swiftness with
which the waves advance and recede along all those shores. A whirlpool or
maelstrom of this kind is called by the poet Virgil "Charybdis"
which he says in his poem is in the Sicilian strait, speaking of it in this
way: "Scylla the right hand besets, and the left, the relentless
Charybdis; Thrice in the whirl of the deepest abyss it swallows the vast
waves Headlong, and lifts them again in turn one after another Forth to the
upper air, and lashes the stars with the bellows". Ships are alleged to
be often violently and swiftly dragged in by this whirlpool (of which indeed
we have spoken) with such speed that they seem to imitate the fall of arrows
through the air, and sometimes they perish by a very dreadful end in that
abyss. But often when they are upon the very point of being overwhelmed they
are hurled back by the sudden masses of waves and driven away again with as
great speed as they were first drawn in. They say there is another whirlpool
of this kind between the island of Britain and the province of Galicia, and
with this fact the coasts of the Seine region and of Aquitaine agree, for
they are filled twice a day with such sudden inundations that any one who may
by chance be found only a little inward from the shore can hardly get away.
You may see the rivers of these regions falling back with a very swift
current toward their source, and the fresh waters of the streams turning salt
through the spaces of many miles. The island of Evodia (Alderney) is almost
thirty miles distant from the coast of the Seine region, and in this island,
as its inhabitants declare, is heard the noise of the waters as they sweep
into this Charybdis. I have heard a certain high nobleman of the Gauls
relating that a number of ships, shattered at first by a tempest, were
afterwards devoured by this same Charybdis. And when one only out of all the
men who had been in these ships, still breathing, swam over the waves, while
the rest were dying, he came, swept by the force of the receding waters, up
to the edge of that most frightful abyss. And when now he beheld yawning
before him the deep chaos whose end he could not see, and half dead from very
fear, expected to be hurled into it, suddenly in a way that he could not have
hoped he was cast upon a certain rock and sat him down. And now when all the
waters that were to be swallowed had run down, the margins of that edge (of
the abyss) had been left bare, and while he sat there with difficulty,
trembling with fear and filled with foreboding amid so many distresses, nor
could he hide at all from his sight the death that was a little while
deferred, behold he suddenly sees, as it were, great mountains of water
leaping up from the deep and the first ships which had been sucked in coming
forth again ! And when one of these came near him he grasped it with what effort
he could, and without delay, he was carried in swift flight toward the shore
and escaped the fate of death, living afterwards to tell the story of his
peril. Our own sea also, that is, the Adriatic, which spreads in like manner,
though less violently, through the coasts of Venetia and Istria, is believed
to have little secret currents of this kind by which the receding waters are
sucked in and vomited out again to dash upon the shores. These things having
been thus examined, let us go back to the order of our narrative already
begun. |
||
|
7. Igitur egressi de Scadinavia Winili, cum Ibor et Aione ducibus, in
regionem quae appellatur Scoringa venientes, per annos illic aliquot
consederunt. Illo itaque tempore Ambri et Assi Wandalorum duces vicinas
quasque provincias bello premebant. Hi iam multis elati victoriis, nuntios ad
Winilos mittunt, ut aut tributa Wandalis persolverent, aut se ad belli
certamina praepararent. Tunc Ibor et Aio, adnitente matre Gambara, deliberant, melius esse
armis libertatem tueri, quam tributorum eandem solutione foedare. Mandant per
legatos Wandalis, pugnaturos se potius quam servituros. Erant siquidem tunc
Winili universi iuvenili aetate florentes, sed numero perexigui, quippe qui
unius non nimiae amplitudinis insulae tertia solummodo particula fuerint. |
7. The Winnili then, having departed from Scandinavia with their
leaders Ibor and Aio, and coming into the region which is called Scoringa,
settled there for some years. At that time Ambri and Assi, leaders of the
Wandals, were coercing all the neighboring by war. Already elated by many
victories they sent messengers to the Winnili to tell them that they should
either pay tribute to the Wandals or make ready for the struggles of war.
Then Ibor and Aio, with the approval of their mother Gambara, determine that
it is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of
tribute. They send word to the Wandals by messengers that they will rather
fight than be slaves. The Winnili were then all in the flower of their youth,
but were very few in number since they had been only the third part of one
island of no great size. |
||
|
8. Refert hoc loco antiquitas ridiculam fabulam: quod accedentes
Wandali ad Godan victoriam de Winilis postulaverint, illeque responderit, se
illis victoriam daturum quos primum oriente sole conspexisset. Tunc
accessisse Gambaram ad Fream, uxorem Godan, et Winilis victoriam postulasse,
Freamque consilium dedisse, ut Winilorum mulieres solutos crines erga faciem
ad barbae similitudinem componerent maneque primo cum viris adessent seseque
a Godan videndas pariter e regione, qua ille per fenestram orientem versus
erat solitus aspicere, collocarent. Atque ita factum fuisse. Quas cum Godan
oriente sole conspiceret, dixisse: "Qui sunt isti longibarbi?".
Tunc Fream subiunxisse, ut quibus nomen tribuerat victoriam condonaret.
Sicque Winilis Godan victoriam concessisse. Haec risu digna sunt et pro
nihilo habenda. Victoria enim non potestati est adtributa hominum, sed de
caelo potius ministratur. |
8. At this point, the men of old tell a silly story that the Wandals
coming to Godan (Wotan) besought him for victory over the Winnili and that he
answered that he would give the victory to those whom he saw first at
sunrise; that then Gambara went to Frea (Freja) wife of Godan and asked for
victory for the Winnili, and that Frea gave her counsel that the women of the
Winnili should take down their hair and arrange it upon the face like a
beard, and that in the early morning they should be present with their
husbands and in like manner station themselves to be seen by Godan from the
quarter in which he had been wont to look through his window toward the east.
And so it was done. And when Godan saw them at sunrise he said: "Who are
these long-beards?" And then Frea induced him to give the victory to
those to whom he had given the name. And thus Godan gave the victory to the
Winnili. These things are worthy of laughter and are to be held of no
account. For victory is due, not to the power of men, but it is rather
furnished from heaven. |
||
|
9. Certum tamen est, Langobardos ab intactae ferro barbae longitudine,
cum primitus Winili dicti fuerint, ita postmodum appellatos. Nam iuxta
illorum linguam lang longam, bard barbam significat. Wotan sane, quem adiecta
littera Godan dixerunt, ipse est qui apud Romanos Mercurius dicitur et ab
universis Germaniae gentibus ut deus adoratur; qui non circa haec tempora,
sed longe anterius, nec in Germania, sed in Grecia fuisse perhibetur. |
9. It is certain, however, that the Langobards were afterwards so called
on account of the length of their beards untouched by the knife, whereas at
first they had been called Winnili; for according to their language
"lang" means " long" and " bart "
"beard." Wotan indeed, whom by adding a letter they called Godan is
he who among the Romans is called Mercury, and he is worshiped by all the
peoples of Germany as a god, though he is deemed to have existed, not about
these times, but long before, and not in Germany, but in Greece. |
||
|
10. Winili igitur, qui et Langobardi, commisso cum Wandalis proelio,
acriter, utpote pro libertatis gloria, decertantes, victoriam capiunt. Qui
magnam postmodum famis penuriam in eadem Scoringa provincia perpessi, valde
animo consternati sunt. |
10. The Winnili therefore, who are also Langobards, having joined
battle with the Wandals, struggle fiercely, since it is for the glory of
freedom, and win the victory. And afterwards, having suffered in this same
province of Scoringa, great privation from hunger, their minds were filled
with dismay. |
||
|
11. De qua egredientes, dum in Mauringam transire disponerent,
Assipitti eorum iter impediunt, denegantes eis omnimodis per suos terminos
transitum. Porro Langobardi cum magnas hostium copias cernerent neque cum eis
ob paucitatem exercitus congredi auderent, dumque quid agere deberent
decernerent, tandem necessitas consilium repperit. Simulant, se in
castris suis habere cynocephalos, id est canini capitis homines. Divulgant apud hostes, hos pertinaciter bella
gerere, humanum sanguinem bibere et, si hostem adsequi non possint, proprium
potare cruorem. Utque huic adsertioni fidem facerent,
ampliant tentoria plurimosque in castris ignes accendunt. His hostes auditis
visisque creduli effecti, bellum quod minabantur iam temptare non audent. |
11. Departing from this place, while they were arranging to pass over
into Mauringa, the Assipitti block their way, denying to them by every means
a passage through their territories. The Langobards moreover, when they
beheld the great forces of their enemies, did not dare engage them on account
of the smallness of their army, and while they were deciding what they ought
to do, necessity at length hit upon a plan. They pretend that they have in
their camps Cynocephali, that is, men with dogs' heads. They spread the rumor
among the enemy that these men wage war obstinately, drink human blood and
quaff their own gore if they cannot reach the foe. And to give faith to this
assertion, the Langobards spread their tents wide and kindle a great many
fires in their camps. The enemy being made credulous when these things are
heard and seen, dare not now attempt the war they threatened. |
||
|
12. Habebant tamen apud se virum fortissimum, de cuius fidebant
viribus, posse se procul dubio obtinere quod vellent. Hunc solum pro omnibus
pugnaturum obiciunt. Mandant Langobardis, unum quem vellent suorum mitterent,
qui cum eo ad singulare certamen exiret, ea videlicet conditione, ut, si suus
bellator victoriam caperet, Langobardi itinere quo venerant abirent; sin vero
superaretur ab altero, tunc se Langobardis transitum per fines proprios non
vetituros. Cumque Langobardi, quem e suis potius adversus virum
bellicosissimum mitterent, ambigerent, quidam ex servili conditione sponte se
optulit, promittit se provocanti hosti congressurum, ea ratione, ut, si de hoste
victoriam caperet, a se suaque progenie servitutis naevum auferrent. Quid plura?
Gratanter quae postularat sese facturos pollicentur. Adgressus hostem,
pugnavit et vicit; Langobardis transeundi facultatem, sibi suisque, ut
optaverat, iura libertatis indeptus est. |
12. They had, however, among them a very powerful man, to whose
strength they trusted that they could obtain without doubt what they wanted.
They offered him alone to fight for all. They charged the Langobards to send
any one of their own they might wish, to go forth with him to single combat
upon this condition, to wit; that if their warrior should win the victory,
the Langobards would depart the way they had come, but if he should be
overthrown by the other, then they would not forbid the Langobards a passage
through their own territories. And when the Langobards were in doubt what one
of their own they should send against this most warlike man, a certain person
of servile rank offered himself of his own will, and promised that he would
engage the challenging enemy upon this condition : that if he took the
victory from the enemy, they would take away the stain of slavery from him
and from his offspring. Why say more? They joyfully promised to do what he
had asked. Having engaged the enemy, he fought and conquered, and won for the
Langobards the means of passage, and for himself and his descendants, as he
had desired, the rights of liberty. |
||
|
13. Igitur Langobardi tandem in Mauringam pervenientes, ut bellatorum
possint ampliare numerum, plures a servili iugo ereptos ad libertatis statum
perducunt. Utque rata eorum
haberi possit ingenuitas, sanciunt more solito per sagittam, inmurmurantes
nihilominus ob rei firmitatem quaedam patria verba. Egressi itaque Langobardi
de Mauringa, applicuerunt in Golandam, ubi aliquanto tempore commorati,
dicuntur post haec Anthab et Banthaib, pari modo et Vurgundaib, per annos
aliquot possedisse; quae nos arbitrari possumus esse vocabula pagorum seu
quorumcumque locorum. |
13. Therefore the Langobards, coming at last into Mauringa, in order
that they might increase the number of their warriors, confer liberty upon
many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of
these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way
by an arrow, uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the
fact. Then the Langobards went forth from Mauringa and came to Golanda,
where, having remained some time, they are afterwards said to have possessed
for some years Anthaib and Banthaib, and in like manner Vurgundaib, which we
can consider are names of districts or of some kinds of places. |
||
|
14. Mortuis interea Ibor et Agione ducibus, qui Langobardos a
Scadinavia eduxerant et usque ad haec tempora rexerant, nolentes iam ultra
Langobardi esse sub ducibus, regem sibi ad ceterarum instar gentium
statuerunt. Regnavit igitur
super eos primus Agelmund, filius Agionis, ex prosapia ducens originem
Gungingorum, quae apud eos generosior habebatur. Hic, sicut a
maioribus traditur, tribus et triginta annis Langobardorum tenuit regnum. |
14. Meanwhile the leaders Ibor and Aio, who had conducted the
Langobards from Scandinavia and had ruled them up to this time, being dead,
the Langobards, now unwilling to remain longer under mere chiefs (dukes)
ordained a king for themselves like other nations. [1] Therefore Agelmund,
[2] the son of Aio first reigned over them [3] tracing out of his pedigree
the stock of the Gungingi which among them was esteemed particularly noble.
He held the sovereignty of the Langobards, as is reported by our ancestors,
for thirty years. |
||
|
15. His temporibus quaedam meretrix uno partu septem puerulos enixa,
beluis omnibus mater crudelior in piscinam proiecit necandos. Hoc si cui
impossibile videtur, relegat historias veterum, et inveniet, non solum septem
infantulos, sed etiam novem unam mulierem semel peperisse. Et hoc certum est
maxime apud Aegyptios fieri. Contigit itaque, ut rex Agelmund, dum iter
carperet, ad eandem piscinam deveniret. Qui cum equo retento miserandos
infantulos miraretur hastaque, quam manu gerebat, huc illucque eos
inverteret, unus ex illis iniecta manu hastam regiam conprehendit. Rex
misericordia motus factumque altius ammiratus, eum magnum futurum pronuntiat.
Moxque eum a piscina levari praecepit, atque nutrici traditum omni cum studio
mandat alendum; et quia eum de piscina, quae eorum lingua lama dicitur,
abstulit, Lamissio eidem nomen inposuit. Qui cum adolevisset,
tam strenuus iuvenis effectus est, ut et bellicosissimus extiterit et post
Agelmundi funus regni gubernacula rexerit. Ferunt hunc, dum Langobardi cum
rege suo iter agentes ad quendam fluvium pervenissent et ab Amazonibus essent
prohibiti ultra permeare, cum earum fortissima in fluvio natatu pugnasse
eamque peremisse, sibique laudis gloriam, Langobardis quoque transitum
paravisse. Hoc siquidem inter utrasque acies prius constitisse, quatenus, si
Amazon eadem Lamissionem superaret, Langobardi a flumine recederent; sin vero
a Lamissione, ut et factum est, ipsa vinceretur, Langobardis eadem permeandi
fluenta copia praeberetur. Constat sane, quia huius assertionis series minus
veritate subnixa est. Omnibus etenim quibus veteres historiae notae sunt,
patet, gentem Amazonum longe antea, quam haec fieri potuerint, esse deletam;
nisi forte, quia loca eadem, ubi haec gesta feruntur, non satis
historiographis nota fuerunt et vix ab aliquo eorum vulgata sunt, fieri
potuerit, ut usque ad id tempus huiuscemodi inibi mulierum genus haberetur. Nam et ego referri a quibusdam audivi, usque hodie
in intimis Germaniae finibus gentem harum existere feminarum. |
15. At this time a certain prostitute had brought forth seven little
boys at a birth, and the mother, more cruel than all wild beasts, threw them
into a fish-pond to be drowned. If this seems impossible to any, let him read
over the histories of the ancients and he will find that one woman brought
forth not only seven infants but even nine at one time. And it is sure that
this occurred especially among the Egyptians. It happened therefore that when
King Agelmund had stopped his horse and looked at the wretched infants, and
had turned them hither and thither with the spear he carried in his hand, one
of them put his hand on the royal spear and clutched it. The king moved by
pity and marveling greatly at the act, pronounced that he would be a great
man. And straightway he ordered him to be lifted from the fish-pond and
commanded him to be brought to a nurse to be nourished with every care, and
because he took him from a fish-pond which in their language is called "
lama" he gave him the name Lamissio. When he had grown up he became such
a vigorous youth that he was also very fond of fighting, and after the death
of Agelmund he directed the government of the kingdom. They say that when the
Langobards, pursuing their way with their king, came to a certain river and
were forbidden by the Amazons to cross to the other side, this man fought
with the strongest of them, swimming in the river, and killed her and won for
himself the glory of great praise and a passage also for the Langobards. For
it had been previously agreed between the two armies that if that Amazon
should overcome Lamissio, the Langobards would withdraw from the river, but
if she herself were conquered by Lamissio, as actually occurred, then the
means of crossing the stream should be afforded to the Langobards.It is
clear, to be sure, that this kind of an assertion is little supported by
truth, for it is known to all who are acquainted with ancient histories that
the race of Amazons was destroyed long before these things could have
occurred, unless perchance (because the places where these things are said to
have been done were not well enough known to the writers of history and are
scarcely mentioned by any of them), it might have been that a class of women
of this kind dwelt there at that time, for I have heard it related by some
that the race of these women exists up to the present day in the innermost
parts of Germany. |
||
|
16. Igitur transmeato Langobardi de quo dixeramus flumine, cum ad
ulteriores terras pervenissent, illic per tempus aliquod commorabantur.
Interea cum nihil adversi suspicarentur et essent quiete longa minus
solliciti, securitas, quae semper detrimentorum mater est, eis non modicam
perniciem peperit. Noctu denique
cum neglegentia resoluti cuncti quiescerent, subito super eos Vulgares
inruentes, plures ex eis sauciant, multos prosternunt, et in tantum per eorum
castra debacchati sunt, ut ipsum Agelmundum regem interficerent eiusque
unicam filiam sorte captivitatis auferrent. |
16. Therefore after passing the river of which we have spoken, the
Langobards, when they came to the lands beyond, sojourned there for some
time. Meanwhile, since they suspected nothing hostile and were the less
uneasy on account of their long repose, confidence, which is always the mother
of calamities, prepared for them a disaster of no mean sort. At night, in
short, when all were resting, relaxed by negligence, suddenly the Bulgarians,
rushing upon them, slew many, wounded many more and so raged through their
camp that they killed Agelmund, the king himself, and carried away in
captivity his only daughter. |
||
|
17. Resumptis tamen post haec incommoda Langobardi viribus,
Lamissionem, de quo superius dixeramus, sibi regem constituerunt. Qui, ut
erat iuvenili aetate fervidus et ad belli certamina satis promptus, alumni
sui Agelmundi necem ulcisci cupiens, in Vulgares arma convertit. Primoque mox proelio commisso, Langobardi hostibus
terga dantes, ad castra refugiunt. Tunc rex Lamissio ista conspiciens,
elevata altius voce, omni exercitui clamare coepit, ut obprobriorum quod
pertulerunt meminissent revocarentque ante oculos dedecus, quomodo eorum
regem hostes iugulaverint, quam miserabiliter eius natam, quam sibi reginam
optaverant, captivam abduxerint. Postremo hortatur, ut se suosque armis defenderent,
melius esse dicens, in bello animam ponere quam ut vilia mancipia hostium
ludibriis subiacere. Haec et huiuscemodi dum vociferans diceret, et nunc
minis nunc promissionibus ad toleranda eorum animos belli certamina
roboraret; si quem etiam servilis conditionis pugnantem vidisset, libertate
eum simul cum praemiis donaret: tandem hortatu exemplisque principis, qui
primus ad bellum prosilierat, accensi, super hostes inruunt, pugnant
atrociter, et magna adversarios clade prosternunt; tandemque de victoribus
victoriam capientes, tam regis sui funus quam proprias iniurias ulciscuntur.
Tunc magna de hostium exuviis praeda potiti, ex illo iam tempore ad
expetendos belli labores audaciores effecti sunt. |
17. Nevertheless the Langobards, having recovered their strength after
these disasters, made Lamissio, of whom we have spoken above, their king. And
he, as he was in the glow of youth and quite ready for the struggles of war,
desiring to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund, his foster-father, turned his
arms against the Bulgarians. And presently, when the first battle began, the
Langobards, turning their backs to the enemy, fled to their camp. Then king
Lamissio seeing these things, began in a loud voice to cry out to the whole
army that they should remember the infamies they had suffered and recall to
view their disgrace ; how their enemies had murdered their king and had
carried off in lamentation as a captive, his daughter whom they had desired
for their queen. Finally he urged them to defend themselves and theirs by
arms, saying that it was better to lay down life in war than to submit as
vile slaves to the taunts of their enemies. Crying aloud, he said these
things and the like and now by threats, now by promises, strengthened their
minds to endure the struggles of war; moreover if he saw any one of servile
condition fighting he endowed him with liberty, as well as rewards. At last
inflamed by the urging and example of their chief who had been the first to
spring to arms, they rush upon the foe, fight fiercely and overthrow their
adversaries with great slaughter, and finally, taking victory from the
victors, they avenge as well the death of their king as the insults to
themselves. Then having taken possession of great booty from the spoils of
their enemies, from that time on they become bolder in undertaking the toils
of war. |
||
|
18. Defuncto post haec Lamissione, qui secundus regnaverat, tertius ad
regni gubernacula Lethu ascendit. Qui cum quadraginta ferme annos regnasset,
Hildehoc filium, qui quartus in numero fuit, regni successorem reliquit. Hoc quoque defuncto,
quintus Godehoc regnum suscepit. |
18. After these things Lamissio, the second who had reigned, died, and
the third, Lethu, ascended the throne of the kingdom, and when he had reigned
nearly forty years, he left Hildeoc his son, who was the fourth in number, as
his successor in the kingly power. And when he also died, Gudeoc, as the
fifth, received the royal authority. |
||
|
19. His temporibus inter Odoacar, qui in Italia per aliquot iam annos
regnabat, et Feletheum, qui et Feba dictus est, Rugorum regem, magnarum
inimicitiarum fomes exarsit. Qui Feletheus illis diebus ulteriorem Danubii ripam incolebat, quam a
Norici finibus idem Danubius separat. In his Noricorum finibus beati tunc
erat Severini coenobium. Qui omni abstinentiae sanctitate praeditus, multis
iam erat virtutibus clarus. Qui cum iisdem in locis ad vitae usque metas
habitasset, nunc tamen eius corpusculum Neapolis retinet. Hic saepius hunc de
quo diximus Feletheum eiusque coniugem, cui vocabulum Gisa fuit, ut ab
iniquitate quiescerent, verbis coelestibus monuit. Quibus pia verba
spernentibus, hoc quod eis postmodum contigit, longe antea futurum praedixit.
Adunatis igitur Odoacar gentibus quae eius dicioni parebant, id est
Turcilingis et Herolis Rugorumque parte, quos iam dudum possidebat, necnon
etiam Italiae populis, venit in Rugiland pugnavitque cum Rugis, ultimaque eos
clade conficiens, Feletheum insuper eorum regem extinxit; vastataque omni
provincia, Italiam repetens, copiosam secum captivorum multitudinem abduxit.
Tunc Langobardi de suis regionibus egressi, venerunt in Rugiland, quae latino
eloquio Rugorum patria dicitur, atque in ea, quia erat solo fertilis,
aliquantis commorati sunt annis. |
19. In these times the fuel of great enmities was consumed between
Odoacar who was ruling in Italy now for some years, and Feletheus, who is
also called Feva, king of the Rugii. This Feletheus dwelt in those days on
the further shore of the Danube, which the Danube itself separates from the
territories of Noricum. In these territories of the Noricans at that time was
the monastery of the blessed Severinus, who, endowed with the sanctity of
every abstinence, was already renowned for his many virtues, and though he
dwelt in these places up to the end of his life, now however, Neapolis
(Naples) keeps his remains. He often admonished this Feletheus of whom we
have spoken and his wife, whose name was Gisa, in saintly language that they
should desist from iniquity, and when they spurned his pious words, he predicted
a long while beforehand that that would occur which afterwards befell them.
Odoacar then, having collected together the nations which were subject to his
sovereignty, that is the Turcilingi and the Heroli and the portion of the
Rugii he already possessed and also the peoples of Italy, came into Rugiland
and fought with the Rugii, and sweeping them away in final defeat he
destroyed also Feletheus their king, and after the whole province was
devastated, he returned to Italy and carried off with him an abundant
multitude of captives. Then the Langobards, having moved out of their own
territories, came into Rugiland, which is called in the Latin tongue the
country of the Rugii, and because it was fertile in soil they remained in it
a number of years. |
||
|
[HOME] |
|||
|
|
|||
|
IN NOMINE DOMINI INCIPIT ORIGO GENTIS
LANGOBARDORVM |
|
||
|
|
|
||
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXrrcZWvuAY
Creating a Nation:
The Long-beards
BY MARISSA FEBRUARY
29, 2012 ETHNOGENESIS HISTORY ITALY LOMBARDS MIDDLE AGES PAUL THE DEACON ROME
The Arab Spring movements, and the
recent unrest in Syria in particular, have called attention to the ongoing
processes of history–the emergence of nations, the decline of regimes, and the
importance of narrative in creating a common sense of identity. In keeping with
these themes, I thought I would share an early mediaeval example of ethnogenesis,
or the creation of a new people.
The first stage of Lombard Italy, ca.572
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alboin%27s_Italy.svg)
The people in
question were the Langobards, or Lombards, the second group of ‘barbarian
peoples’ to settle in Italy. Originally settled in a region known as Pannonia,
(modern-day Hungary and Austria), the Lombards operated as clients of the
Eastern Roman Empire. Fighting other ‘barbarian’ groups on behalf of Emperor
Justinian, they became more and more closely integrated into late Roman
society. Thus when the Avars (another tribal grouping) became to powerful in
Pannonia, the Lombards were prepared to conquer Italy and to make the region
their own, a process that went on from the 560s until the late 8th century.
This story,
however, failed to satisfy either their own grand ambitions or the notions of
the educated ‘Roman’ writers. Drawing upon a long ethnographic tradition,
authors began to create an ancient history of the Lombards, which placed their
origins in Scandinavia (the cradle of nations) and which traced a long, heroic
period of migration through Europe. Scholars fiercely debate the historical
accuracy of such stories, but they do provide a glimpse into the world of
imagination, oral storytelling, and political propaganda of the times.
Paul the
Deacon, who wrote an extensive history of the Lombards after the latter had
converted to Christianity, related one such episode which details how the
Lombards got their names:
“At this
point, the men of old tell a silly story that the Wandals coming to Godan
(Wotan) besought him for victory over the Winnili and that he answered that he
would give the victory to those whom he saw first at sunrise; that then Gambara
went to Frea (Freja) wife of Godan and asked for victory for the Winnili, and
that Frea gave her counsel that the women of the Winnili should take down their
hair and arrange it upon the face like a beard, and that in the early morning
they should be present with their husbands and in like manner station themselves
to be seen by Godan from the quarter in which he had been wont to look through
his window toward the east. And so it was done. And when Godan saw them at
sunrise he said: “Who are these long-beards?” And then Frea induced him to give
the victory to those to whom he had given the name. And thus Godan gave the
victory to the Winnili. These things are worthy of laughter and are to be held
of no account. For victory is due, not to the power of men, but it is rather
furnished from heaven.”
This story,
which Paul clearly disdained, is both an entertaining example of the types of
stories used in the creation of mediaeval nations, and a reminder that history
is not merely about the facts of the past, but also about how it is manipulated
and invoked–even when it involves fake beards and a band of cross-dressers.
Learn
More:
Paul the
Deacon, Historia
Langobardorum, trans. William Dudley Foulke, (1907), is
available copyright-freeonline.
Like
barbarians? Then check out my post on
Reccesuinth and the Visigoths in Spain!
Who were the
Lombards?
by Chris Westerley
·
Created on: October 30, 2009
Last Updated:
[Notenote:
modern geographical names are given throughout this article to help
comprehension]
Lombards is a
corruption of Langobardi, which means long beards. The legend from
which this name derives is described below.The Lombards were a Germanic
tribe, which invaded Italy in 568 and established a kingdom, which lasted just
over 200 years. The Langobardi had initially settled in Germany after moving
there from the Nordic region.
The Lombards'
own tribal tradition was only placed in writing in the 7th century in the Origo
Gentis Langobardorum. Paulus Diaconus, otherwise known as Warnefred,
Cassinensi or Paul the Deacon, while borrowing heavily from this document a
century later, dismissed it as a "ridiculous fable". Given
that Paul was a Benedictine monk, and therefore unsympathetic to the
pagan origins of the Langobardi, his attitude is not surprising.
Fortunately, three extant copies of the Origo remain and provide a
valuable source for the pre-Christian beliefs, traditions and legends of
the Lombards.
The
Lombards believed that they originally came from Scandinavia. There, they
were called the Winnili. The leaders who led them southwards into Germany were
Ibor and Aio, sons of Gambara, a seeress. The Vandals declared war on the
Winnili and prayed to Odin for victory. Ibor, Aio and their mother prayed to
Freya. Odin said he would give victory to whomever he saw first at sunrise.
Freya told the Winnili women to tie their hair below their chins like beards.
She gathered them together in a group. Then she turned round Odin's bed to face
them. When he woke at sunrise, he saw the group in front of him. "Who are
these long beards?", he asked. "You've given them their name, now
give them victory", replied Freya. From then on, they were known as
Langobardi.
Early History
The first
historical reference to the Lombards is an account of their defeat by Emperor
Tiberius in 5 AD. At that time, they were living in the lower basin of the Elbe
river, in Germany. In 165, the Romans defeated a Lombard army near the Danube.
This suggests the tribe may have already started moving southwards. After that
they do not feature in historical accounts until well into the 5th century.
Towards the end
of the 5th century, the Lombards converted to the Arian form of Christianity.
In 553, they fought with Emperor Justinian against the Ostrogoths. At this
time, they were living in Lower Austria. Their king, Alboin, defeated the
Gepidae tribe. He killed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2b2PmnstxI
|
Il Mito di Gambara, madre dei Longobardi |
|
|
Gŕmbara, il
nome, il paese, la famiglia, nel mito, nella storia...
Il
Mito di Gŕmbara Valchiria Madre-Regina dei Longobardi
|
Gŕmbara and the
Longbeards (Langobards) Edited
and translated by link to: Folklore and
Mythology Electronic Texts Germanic Myths,
Legends, and Sagas Jacob
and Wilhelm Grimm The
Vinils, increased in the islands of Scandinavia to such an extent that they
could no longer live there together. Thus they divided themselves into three
groups and drew lots. When the
lots were cast and a third of the Vinils had to leave their homeland and seek
new lives abroad, they were led by two brothers Ibor and Ayo, energetic young
men. Their mother, whose name wasGŕmbara, was an intelligent and
clever woman, whose wise counsel they heeded in time of need. In their
search for a country where they might settle they came to the region called
Schoringen, and remained there several years. The
Vandals, a rugged and warlike people, lived nearby. They heard of their
arrival and sent messengers to them, proclaiming that the Vinils either would
have to pay tribute to the Vandals or face them in battle. Ibor and
Ayo sought counsel from their mother Gŕmbara,
and they all agreed that it would be better to fight for their freedom than
to contaminate it with tribute, and they communicated this to the Vandals.
Now the Vinils were brave and powerful warriors, but they were few in number. The
Vandals approached Wodan, beseeching from him victory over the Vinils. The
god answered: "I will grant victory to the first ones I see at
sunrise." Gŕmbara, on the other hand, approached
Frea, Wodan's wife, and beseeched from her victory for the Vinils. Frea
responded with the advice that the Vinil women should untie their hair and
arrange it across their face like a beard, and that they should thus
accompany their men in the early morning to the window from which Wodan
customarily looked out. They did
as they were advised, and at sunrise, Wodan, upon looking out, shouted:
"Who are these Longbeards?" Frea
replied: "To the ones you give a name, you must also give victory."
And thus Wodan gave them the victory, and from that time forth the Vinils
have been called Longbeards (Langobards). Ultimately
they founded a permanent settlement in Italy. Notes: Source:
Abstracted from Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Deutsche
Sagen(1816/1818), nos. 388, 390. The Grimms' source is Paulus Diaconus
(ca. 725- ca. 799). This is
one of the few ancient stories about Germanic gods to survive outside of
Scandinavia. Frea is
better known as Frigg in Scandinavian sources. Wodan is
better known as Odin in Scandinavian sources. Revised February 12, 1997. |
Gŕmbara
e le Lunghebarbe (Longobardi) Pubblicato
e tradotto da link a: Testi Elettronici
su Folclore e Mitologia Miti Germanici,
Leggende e Saghe Giacomo
e Guglielmo Grimm I
Winnili, crebbero e si moltiplicarono nelle isole della Scandinavia a tal
punto che non poterono piů vivere insieme lŕ. Cosě si divisero in tre gruppi
ed estrassero a sorte. Quando la
scelta fu decisa ed un terzo dei Winnili dovette lasciare la sua terra natale
per cercare nuova vita all'estero, essi furono guidati da due fratelli Ibor
ed Ayo, due giovani energici. La loro madre, il nome della quale era Gŕmbara, era una donna
intelligente e capace, ed i suoi saggi consigli furono di guida nei momenti
del bisogno. Nella
loro ricerca d'un paese di residenza esse giunsero nella regione chiamata
Schoringen ed ivi rimasero per parecchi anni. I
Vandali, un popolo forte e bellicoso, viveva li vicino. Essi sentirono del
loro arrivo ed inviarono loro messaggeri, che imposero ai Winnili o di pagare
tributi ai Vandali o di affrontarli in battaglia. Ibor ed
Ayo chiesero consiglio alla loro madre Gŕmbara e unanimemente decisero che sarebbe
stato meglio combattere per la libertŕ che contaminarla con tributi, e lo
comunicarono ai Vandali. I Vandali
si rivolsero a Wodan, invocando da lui la vittoria sui Winnili. Il dio
rispose: "assegnerň la vittoria a coloro che vedrň per primi
all'alba". Gŕmbara, dall'altra parte, si rivolse a
Frea, moglie di Wodan ed invocň da lei la vittoria per i Winnili. Frea rispose
con il consiglio, che le donne dei Winnili avrebbero dovuto sciogliere i loro
capelli ed acconciarli di traverso sulla loro faccia come una barba e che
cosě acconciate avrebbero dovuto accompagnare i loro uomini nella prima
mattina di fronte alla finestra dalla quale Wodan abitualmente guardava. Essi
fecero come suggerito loro, ed all' alba, Wodan, guardando fuori, escalmň:
"chi sono questi Lunghebarbe?" Frea
rispose: "a quelli ai quali voi adesso avete dato un nome, voi dovete
anche dare la vittoria." E cosě Wodan diede loro la vittoria, e da
allora in poi i Winnili vennero chiamati Lunghebarbe (Longobardi). Alla fine
essi fondarono un insediamento permanente in Italia. Note: Fonte:
Estratto da Saghe Tedesche (1816/1818), no. 388, 390 di Giacomo
e Guglielmo Grimm. La fonte dei Grimm č Paolo Diacono (ca. 725-ca. 799). Questa č
una delle poche storie antiche sugli dei germanici che sopravvivono fuori
dalla Scandinavia. Frea č
meglio conosciuta come Frigg nelle fonti scandinave. Wodan č
meglio conosciuto come Odin nelle fonti scandinave. Modificato
12 Febbraio 1997. nel
destino dell'Europa e dell'Italia. |
|
di Goffredo Adinolfi |
Informazioni
sulla religiositŕ scandinava pre-cristiana
Scandinavian Mythology, pre-Christian religious beliefs of the Scandinavian
people.
The Scandinavian legends and myths about
ancient heroes, gods, and the creation and destruction of the universe
developed out of the original common mythology of the Germanic peoples (Ed.
note: This is a common theory among Germanic scholars, who tend to believe that
the Sax invented everything. The truth is that the Nordic, both Wanr &
Aesr, and the Saxon (Germanic) mythology originated in, and developed from,
India and the Vedas) and constitute the primary source of knowledge about
ancient German mythology. Because Scandinavian mythology was transmitted and
altered by medieval Christian historians, the original pagan religious beliefs,
attitudes, and practices cannot be determined with certainty. Clearly, however,
Scandinavian mythology developed slowly, and the relative importance of
different gods and heroes varied at different times and places. Thus, the cult
of Odin, chief of the gods, may have spread from western Germany to Scandinavia
not long before the myths were recorded; minor gods including Ull, the
fertility god Njord 1, and Heimdall may represent older deities 2 who lost
strength and popularity as Odin became more important. Odin, a god of war, was
also associated with learning, wisdom, poetry, and magic. (ed. note: Odin
associated himself with anything that made him look good.)
Most information about Scandinavian
mythology is preserved in the Old Norse literature (Icelandic, Swedish, and
Norwegian Literature), in the Eddas and later sagas; other material appears in
commentaries by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus and the German writer
Adam of Bremen (flourished about 1075). Fragments of legends are sometimes
preserved in old inscriptions and in later folklore.
Gods and Heroes
Besides Odin, the major deities of Scandinavian
mythology were his wife, Frigg, goddess of the home; Valhalla. There the
warriors would spend their days fighting and nights feasting until Ragnarok,
the day of the final world battle, in which the old gods would perish and a new
reign of peace and love would be instituted. Ordinary individuals were received
after death by the goddess Hel in a cheerless underground world.
Scandinavian mythology included dwarves;
elves; and the Norns, who distributed fates to mortals. The ancient
Scandinavians also believed in personal spirits, such as the fylgja and the
hamingja, which in some respects resembled the Christian idea of the soul. The
gods were originally conceived as a confederation of two formerly warring
divine tribes, the Aesir and the Vanir. Odin was originally the leader of the
Aesir, which consisted of at least 12 gods. Together all the gods lived in
Asgard.
Creation belief
The Eddic poem Völuspá (Prophecy of the
Seeress) portrays a period of primeval chaos, followed by the creation of
giants and gods and, finally, of humankind. Ginnungagap was the yawning void,
Jotunheim the home of the giants, Niflheim the region of cold, and Muspellsheim
the realm of heat. The great world-tree, Yggdrasil, reached through all time
and space, but it was perpetually under attack from Nidhogg, the evil serpent.
The fountain of Mimir, source of hidden wisdom, lay under one of the roots of
the tree.
Religious Ritual
The Scandinavian gods were served by a
class of priest-chieftains called godar. Worship was originally conducted
outdoors, under guardian trees, near sacred wells, or within sacred
arrangements of stones. Later, wooden temples were used, with altars and with
carved representations of the gods. The most important temple was at Old
Uppsala, Sweden, where animals and even human beings were sacrificed.
A Partial Aesir Pantheon:
Odin,
king of the gods. His two black ravens,
Huginn (Thought) and Muninn (Memory), flew forth daily to gather tidings of
events all over the world. As god of war, Odin held court in Valhalla, where
all brave warriors went after death in battle. His greatest treasures were his
eight-footed steed, Sleipner, his spear, Gungnir, and his ring, Draupner. Odin
was also the god of wisdom, poetry, and magic, and he sacrificed an eye for the
privilege of drinking from Mimir, the fountain of wisdom. Odin's three wives
were earth goddesses, and his eldest son was Thor, the god of Thunder. Odin was
worshipped under different names, throughout northern Europe. The Germans
called him Wotan, and the English Woden.
Thor,
the god of thunder, eldest son of Odin and
Jord, the earth goddess. Thor was the strongest of the Aesir, whom he helped
protect from their enemies, the giants. Thunder was believed to be the sound of
his rolling chariot. Also, thursday is named for Thor (Thor's day). Named after
the Germanic word for thunder, Thor wielded a hammer, called Mjollnir, which
represented a powerful thunderbolt. If thrown, the hammer would return to him
like a boomerang.
Loki,
the handsome giant who represented evil
and was possessed of great knowledge and cunning. He was indirectly responsible
for the death of Balder, god of light and joy. According to the Poetic Edda, a
collection of Scandinavian myths, Loki and Hel, goddess of the underworld, will
lead the forces of evil against the Aesir, or gods, in the titanic struggle of
Ragnarok, the end of the world.
Hel,
the goddess of the dead. She dwelt beneath
one of the three roots of the sacred ash tree Yggdrasil and was the daughter of
Loki, the spirit of mischief or evil, and the giantess Angerbotha (Angerboda).
Odin, the All-Father, hurled Hel into Niflheim, the realm of cold and darkness,
itself also known as Hel, over which he gave her sovereign authority.
The Valkyries,
were warrior maidens who attended Odin,
ruler of the gods. The Valkyries rode through the air in brilliant armor,
directed battles, distributed death lots among the warriors, and conducted the
souls of slain heroes to Valhalla, the great hall of Odin. Their leader was
Brunhild.
Abodes of the Aesir Gods:
Asgard,
the abode of the gods. Access to Asgard
was possible only by crossing the bridge Bifrost (the rainbow). Asgard was
divided into 12 or more realms in which each principal god had his own
luxurious mansion of gold or silver. The most important palace was Valhalla,
the home of Odin, the chief of the gods.
Valhalla,
the hall of slain heroes, ruled by the
king of the gods, Odin, in the realm of the gods, Asgard. The hall had 540
doors, through each of which 800 heroes could walk abreast, and the roof was
made of shields. The souls of heroic soldiers killed in battle were brought to
Valhalla by warrior maidens called Valkyries. The heroes fought during the day,
but their wounds healed before night, when they banqueted with Odin.
Editor's Notes:
Keeping in mind that this document is written entirely from the Aesir/Sax
viewpoint, I would like to add these thoughts.
1. Njordur, the father of Frej and Freja, the pre-eminant God of the Vanr;
absorbed and dismissed by the Aesr, along with Ull, Heimdal & other Vanir
deities.
2. The Older Gods referred to here are the gods of the Vanr and the Sami. The
Sami inhabited this area of the world before the Vanir arrived and the Vanir
pre- dated the Aesir by hundreds of years.
La Lingua dei Longobardi
di Marco Moretti
Il Mito
|
|
|
|
I Longobardi parlavano
una lingua appartenente al gruppo delle lingue germaniche occidentali, proprio
come il tedesco, che costituisce il suo parente piů prossimo ancora in uso.
Questo popolo, numericamente poco consistente ma splendente di gloria, č citato
per la prima volta da Velleio Patercolo e quindi dal piů famoso Tacito, che
riportano i suo nome nella forma Langobardi,
piů corretta di quella da noi usata. La lingua che fu portata in Italia dal Re
Alboino nell’anno 568 si spense alcuni secoli dopo, con ogni probabilitŕ verso
l’inizio del XI secolo. Sul finire dell’VIII secolo, lo storico Paolo Diacono
scrisse un volume oltremondo interessante, intitolato Historia Langobardorum, ossia
Storia dei Longobardi. In questo libro incompleto l’autore ha descritto le
vicende dei suoi Padri da quando lasciarono la Scandinavia, loro terra
d’origine, per attraversare diversi paesi dai nomi stravaganti situati lungo il
corso dell’Elba: Scoringa e Mauringa, Golanda, Vurgundaib, Banthaib, e Anthab.
Giunsero quindi al paese di Rugiland sul medio Danubio, e quindi dalla Pannonia
all’Italia. Quando l’Historia Langobardorum vide la luce, il Regno dei Longobardi
era ormai finito, sconfitto e assorbito nell’Impero di Carlo Magno, ma la sua
ereditŕ sarebbe durata ancora a lungo. Eppure tale lavoro non era del tutto
originale, affondando le sue radici in un manoscritto piů antico e di autore
ignoto, chiamato Origo gentis
Langobardorum. Cosě inizia quel breve testo, dando una spiegazione al nome
dei Longobardi:
Esiste un’isola nelle
zone settentrionali chiamata Scadanan, che letteralmente significa “strage”, in
cui vivono molte popolazioni. Tra queste c’era una piccola popolazione, che era
chiamata Winnili. Tra loro vi era una donna chiamata Gambara ed aveva due
figli; Ybor era il nome del primo e Aio quello del secondo. Essi erano i capi
dei Winnili insieme alla madre di nome Gambara. Dunque i capi dei Vandali, ossia
Ambri ed Assi, si misero in marcia con il loro esercito e dicevano ai Winnili:
“O ci versate tributi o preparatevi alla guerra e combattete contro di noi”.
Allora Ybor e Aio insieme alla madre Gambara risposero: “Č meglio per noi
prepararci a combattere piuttosto che versare tributi ai Vandali”. Quindi Ambri
ed Assi, cioč i capi dei Vandali, pregarono Godan di concedere loro la vittoria
sui Winnili. Godan rispose dicendo: “Concederň la vittoria ai primi che vedrň
al sorgere del sole”. Allora Gambara ed i suoi due figli, Ybor ed Aio, che
erano i capi dei Winnili invocarono Frea, moglie di Godan, affinché proteggesse
i Winnili. Frea consigliň che essi si presentasseo al sorgere del sole, e che
venissero insieme ai mariti anche le mogli con i capelli sciolti intorno al
viso a mo’ di barba. Al primo albeggiare mentre il sole sorgeva, Frea girň il
letto su cui dormiva il marito e lo rivolse ad Oriente, e poi lo svegliň. Egli,
aperti gli occhi, vide i Winnili e le loro mogli con i capelli sciolti intorno
al viso, e disse: “Chi sono queste lunghe barbe?”. Allora Frea rispose a Godan:
“Cosě come hai loro imposto un nome, concedigli anche la vittoria”. Da quel
momento i Winnili presero il nome di Longobardi.
Questo brano ci fornisce alcune informazioni sullo sviluppo della lingua
dei Longobardi. Non soltanto afferma l’origine dell’etnonimo da LANG “lungo” e daBARD “barba” (riportato come bart da Paolo Diacono), ma ci dice qualcosa
sull’evoluzione fonetica della lingua. Paolo Diacono, che riprende il testo
aggiungendovi alcune note di scherno sulla leggenda pagana, a suo avviso
intollerabile, afferma che Godan č quella divinitŕ che tutti i Germani adorano
come Wodan, e al cui nome i Longobardi avrebbero “aggiunto una lettera”. Questa
aggiunta č molto significativa. Le parole germaniche adottate nel volgare
romanzo che avrebbe poi dato origine alla lingua italiana e ai suoi dialetti,
in genere mutano la consonante w- in gu-,
cosěcché WERRA č diventato guerra, e via discorrendo. Si č
sempre pensato che questo fosse un vezzo tipico dei parlanti neolatini
nell’adattare un suono straniero. Ma la testimonianza della forma GODAN prova il contrario: a un certo punto,
nella lingua dei Longobardi w- deve essere diventato gu- e davanti alle vocali -o- e -u- si deve essere semplificato in g-, perdendo il suo elemento
labiale, analogamente a quanto č accaduto in gallese. Questa peculiaritŕ
colpiva la consonante in questione soltanto all’inizio di parola: all’interno
di parole composte era scritta invece -u- o addirittura -o-: cosě nei nomi propri ALBUIN,FAROALD, etc. Nel
tedesco odierno, l’antico w- suona ormai come il nostro v-. In dialetti di origine
bavarese come quello dei Mocheni del Trentino e dei Cimbri del Veneto (da non
confondersi con gli antichi Cimbri) si trova invece b-, che potrebbe essere
derivato proprio da un esito di gu- simile a quello del longobardo, ma
labializzato. Per completare questo breve studio dell’etnonimo, dobbiamo notare
che nella tradizione scandinava, diversi secoli dopo gli scritti di Paolo
Diacono, compare Langbarđr,
ossia “Barbalunga”, proprio come epiteto di Odino. L’epiteto norreno č potetico
e molto antico, essendo nel linguaggio comune il termine arcaico barđr sostituito da skegg.
Nell’anno 643 fu
promulgato dal re Rotari un editto scritto in latino, ma contenente molte
parole longobarde conservate intatte. Il fatto che Rotari abbia usato il latino
per raccogliere in un corpus organico le leggi tradizionale della sua gente č
stato ritenuto da diversi studiosi come la prova che la lingua degli avi aveva
lasciato quasi interamente posto al latino. Ancora oggi questa interpretazione
si trova di frequente, pur essendo errata. In realtŕ nessuno sembra aver notato
che al tempo di Rotari nessuno parlava piů il latino usato nell’Editto, che era
utilizzato per redigere documenti legali unicamente per questioni di prestigio.
Uno dei vocaboli piů famosi e duraturi che ricorrono di frequente nel testo č FAIDA, che significa
“vendetta”. Ve ne sono tuttavia di ancor piů espressivi e truci. Ad esempio il
termine PLODRAUB potrebbe essere tradotto con
sciacallaggio o spogliazione del cadavere di un uomo assassinato. Il secondo
elemento della parola, -RAUB,
č corradicale del verbo RAUBON,
che ha dato il nostro “rubare”. Il primo elemento, PLOD-, significa “sangue” (in
tedesco attuale Blut). Con RAIRAUB si intendeva l’atto di depredare un
sepolcro, mentre CRAPUORF indicava la profanazione in cui un
cadavere era gettato fuori dalla tomba che lo custodiva: CRAP- č parente del tedesco Grabe, ossia “tomba”, mentre -UORFindica il concetto di
“gettare”, in tedesco attuale werfen.
Esisteva un termine altamente insultante, ARGA,
che non doveva mai essere rivolto a un uomo. Se questa estrema offesa avveniva,
l’Editto stabiliva nei diversi casi la pena: le alternative erano pagare dodici
soldi di multa ritirando l’insulto e dichiarando di aver agito in preda
all’ira, oppure persistere e affrontare il duello. Questa parola, che indica
l’omosessuale passivo, era un insulto tanto aborrito da tutti i Germani antichi
da dover essere lavato col sangue. La letteratura scandinava tra l’altro
documenta ampiamente che quei popoli antichi attribuivano all’atto sodomitico
il potere di ingravidare un uomo. Paolo Diacono ci racconta un episodio
significativo, in cui il Duca Ferdulf provocň una grave sconfitta e il massacro
del suo esercito, e questo solo perché litigň con il locale magistrato militare
che si chiamava Argait, facendo allusione all’etimo del suo nome.
Sull’altare fatto
costruire da Ratchis quando era Duca del Friuli, si trova un’iscrizione in cui
compare l’enigmatica parola HIDEBOHOHRIT come epiteto del nobiluomo. Questo
termine, noto anche nelle forme brevi HIDEBOHRIT e IBORIT,
č tradotto come “resuscitato”, “risvegliato”. In genere questa traduzione viene
interpretata in senso spirituale, e si pensa al fatto che a un certo punto
Ratchis, che era divenuto Re, č stato deposto, ha preso i voti e ha trovato
scampo in monastero. Questo perň č avvenuto dopo la costruzione dell’altare. Č
possibile supporre che lo strano epiteto fosse inteso diversamente, designando
il concetto di uomo che ritorna alla vita dopo essere stato colpito a morte in
battaglia. In pratica, questa sarebbe la parola usata dai Longobardi per
indicare un morto vivente, una specie di zombie. L’etimologia č sconosciuta e
deve affondare le sue radici nel repertorio magico dei negromanti che
incidevano le rune. Si noti che questa parola conserva suoni aspirati che nelle
parole di uso comune non si pronunciavano piů da tempo. Nella storia di Paolo
Diacono il nome maschile ILDEOC dimostra questa precoce perdita
dell’aspirazione: la sua origine č dalla radice germanica HILDI-, che significa
“battaglia”. Allo stesso modo la radice germanica HARI-, che significa
“esercito”, compare nei nomi propri come ARI-,ARE-,
senza l’aspirazione. Cosě ARICHIS vale “Ostaggio dell’Esercito”, ARIPERT vale “Splendente dell’Esercito”, e via
discorrendo. Dalla stessa base deriva anche la parola “arengario”, che indicava
l’anello su cui l’esercito pronunciava i suoi giuramenti: era un composto con RING “anello”. L’anticoHARIHRING doveva essere pronunciato ARERING e quindi ARRING, a cui la lingua della
popolazione di origine romana ha aggiunto un tipico suffisso.
Proprio nella lingua
dei Longobardi si hanno le piů antiche testimonianze della cosiddetta Seconda
Rotazione delle consonanti. Questo cambiamento, tipico di quella parte del
germanico occidentale che č conosciuta come Alto Tedesco, ha prodotto in molti
contesti il passaggio dalle consonanti occlusive sorde ad affricate o
fricative. Questo č il motivo per cui il tedesco ha Pfeffer “pepe”, was “che cosa”, Wasser “acqua”, Herz “cuore”, Koch“cuoco”, mentre l’inglese
ha come corrispondenti di queste parole rispettivamente pepper, what, water, heart, cook. Un altro effetto della
rotazione, che non si č manifestato in tutti i dialetti tedeschi, č la
trasformazione della consonante occlusiva sonora b- nella sorda p- all’inizio delle radici. Questo si
nota in molti nomi propri, formati con i seguenti elementi: PRAND “tizzone; spada” (tedesco Brand), PERG “montagna” (tedesco Berg), PERT“splendente” (tedesco Bercht). La glossa PACCA, che indica la carne
salata, corrisponde all’inglese bacon.
Esistevano perň dialetti che conservavanob-. La trasformazione che ha
portato in tedesco dall’occlusiva sonora d- alla sorda t- non si č invece verificato in
longobardo, e cosě pure l’originale consonante th- non si č mutata in d- in principio di parola. Cosě THING indica l’assemblea degli Arimanni, e
corrisponde al tedesco Ding “cosa”. I nomi formati con THEODE-, THEOD- “popolo”, tra cui THEODELINDA, corrispondono a
nomi che in tedesco sono formati con Diet-.
L’equivalente longobardo del nome gotico THIUDAREIKS “Teodorico”, č THEODERIS, che in tedesco si
trova come Dietrich. Se la
lingua dei Longobardi per molti versi somigliava all’antico alto tedesco, ossia
al diretto antenato del tedesco moderno – e in particolare all’antico bavarese
– va notato che alcune sue caratteristiche sono molto diverse. Cosě non si
trova nelle sue parole alcuna traccia dell’Umlaut, la metafonesi che trasforma
le vocali radicali e che costituisce uno dei tratti piů tipici di tutti gli
odierni dialetti tedeschi. Proprio per questo motivo, il longobardo ARI- “esercito” suona diversamente dal suo
corrispondente tedesco Heer:
ha una vocale -a- e non una -e-. Un’altra fondamentale
differenza sta nella conservazione dei dittonghi ereditati -ai- e -au- anche dove l’altico alto tedesco li ha
trasformati nelle vocali semplici -e- e -o- rispettivamente. Proprio la radice RAI-, REI- “tomba”, giŕ vista nel lemma legale RAIRAUB, lo dimostra: il
corrispondente nella lingua dei Goti č HRAIW,
la cui grafia ci domostra che la forma piů antica aveva un dittongo, anche se
giŕ ai tempi di Wulfila questa parola era pronunciata HREU con una -e- aperta e lunga. Il nome
proprio maschile RAUFRID č formato da RAUD“rosso” (tedesco Rot) e da FRID “pace” (tedesco Friede).
Vi sono tuttavia
parole che fanno eccezione alle regole fonetiche, perché sono in realtŕ state
prese a prestito dalla lingua dei Goti, che era usata dai missionari della
Chiesa Ariana. Cosě il longobardo GILD “pagamento” (pronunciato con la g- dura), ha una vocale -i- come in gotico, e diversamente dal
tedesco Geld. Si confronti
la forma longobarda ACTOGILD,
equivalente a “otto volte il suo prezzo”, con la contemporanea analoga forma
bavareseNIUNGELD “nove
volte il suo prezzo”. Si noti che per contro Paolo Diacono glossa FELD come “campi aperti”, attestando in
tale parola una fonetica tipicamente occidentale (tedesco Feld) - che non rimava con GILD - e infatti il termine era sconosciuto
alla lingua dei Goti. Anche il nome del capostipite IBOR (scritto anche YBOR), che significa
“cinghiale”, mostra una i-,
mentre il germanico occidentale ha e- (tedesco Eber). Notevole č il termine EWA “legge eterna”, č anch’esso un
prestito dalla lingua dei Goti, che ha monottongato gli originali dittonghi -ai- e -au- in vocali aperte -e- e -o- lunghe rispettivamente. Questi fatti
ci dimostrano una fitta rete di influenze linguistiche non chiaramente
ricostruibili, date le nostre conoscenze troppo frammentarie. Secondo alcuni
studiosi, i Longobardi avrebbero parlato in origine una lingua del gruppo
germanico orientale, che sarebbe stata poi sottoposta all’influenza della
lingua dei Baiovari, da cui gli odierni Bavaresi. Il germanico orientale
sarebbe quindi un sostrato. Sono incline a pensare che sia avvenuto l’esatto
contrario: il germanico orientale ha agito come superstrato in due momenti
diversi. La prima fase di questa influenza fu all’epoca della migrazione dalla
Scandinavia, in cui i Winnili erano influenzati da genti piů potenti e affini
ai Goti: non dimentichiamo che poco ci mancň che finissero tributari dei
Vandali. La seconda fase avvenne con l’inizio della conversione dal paganesimo
tradizionale alla Chiesa Ariana, e la lingua portatrice di questa influenza č
il gotico della traduzione biblica compiuta da Wulfila. Lo stesso dialetto
bavarese contemporaneo conserva numerosi prestiti dalla lingua gotica, tra cui EIDE “madre” (gotico AITHEI), DULT “festa” (gotico DULTHS), OBSEN “portico” (gotico UBIZWA).
I fattori che
determinarono l’indebolimento e l’estinzione finale della lingua dei Longobardi
furono di natura demografica: la popolazione di origine germanica costituiva
soltanto una piccola percentuale del totale. Eppure, nonostante questo,
l’influenza che esercitň sulla stessa popolazione romanizzata fu grande e non
deve essere sminuita. Infatti noi oggi non diciamo “bello” dal latino bellum, ma bensě “guerra”. La lista delle parole
passate all’italiano č davvero consistente, e tali termini sono di uso
generalizzato anche in zone come la Sicilia e la cittŕ di Roma, in cui non si
videro mai Longobardi. Cosě la lingua del Longobardi per dire “acqua” ha WAZZA, WAZZO, donde italiano “guazza”,
“guazzo” - parole ormai in disuso - e “sguazzare”, tuttora in uso (gotico WATO, tedesco Wasser). Questo č un esempio
che mostra come spesso i termini italiani abbiano un significato meno generale
di quelli di origine. Allo stesso modo il termine longobardo ZANNA significa “dente” (tedesco Zahn). Talvolta abbiamo a che
fare con parole come ZACHAR “lacrima” - donde italiano “zacchera”,
“inzaccherare” e STRUNZ “sterco” - donde “stronzo”, che sono
documentate in antico alto tedesco, ma che non hanno lasciato eredi nel tedesco
moderno. Alcuni termini in uso nel Medioevo e oggi desueti, sono ancor piů
notevoli. CosěARIGAIR “lancia
dell’esercito”, ha dato l’italiano antico “alighiero”, da cui anche il cognome
dell’immortale Dante.
In molti dialetti
della Penisola vivono poi parole che non sono presenti nell’italiano standard.
Il corredo nuziale della sposa č chiamato SCHERPA in Lombardia, e questo termine risale
al longobardo SCHERPHA “suppellettili” (-ph- rende il suono che in tedesco moderno
č scritto -pf-) Il padrino
di battesimo č chiamato GUAZZ,
dal longobardo GODAZZO,
alla lettera “padre in Dio”: tutti riconosceranno l’inglese God e il tedesco Gott, mentre la seconda parte
del composto corrisponde al gotico ATTA “padre”. Significativi relitti
longobardi non si trovano soltanto a Settentrione, ma anche nel Meridione. Non
dimentichiamoci che a Benevento le costumanze longobarde durarono fino
all’arrivo dei Normanni e forse anche oltre. In quella corte i discendenti dei
Winnili furono cristiani sono in apparenza, venerando in segreto l’effigie di
una vipera e ornandosi di svastiche, sacre a Godan. Tombe longobarde a
Benevento mostrano ancora in epoca tarda antroponimi non assimilati, come ad
esempio ERF, che significa
“Bruno”. “Fosco”. Anche in Puglia ci sono testimonianze notevoli. Non dimentichiamoci
che i Trovatori della Provenza chiamavano Lombardi gli abitanti della Puglia.
Cosě troviamo in documenti pugliesi voci come UFFU “femore” (tedesco Hüfte “anca”), SCHIZIA “sterco” (tedesco Scheisse) e MEFFIO “vitalizio di una vedova”, parola che
si trova nell’Editto di Rotari come METFIO,
da META “dono nuziale” (gotico MIZDO “ricompensa”, tedesco Miete “affitto”) e FIO “denaro” (goticoFAIHU “denaro”, tedesco Vieh “bestiame”).
A questo punto
possiamo ben chiederci se non sarebbe il caso di recuperare questa ricca
ereditŕ, ricostruendo per intero la lingua e imparandola. Potrebbero nascere
associazioni per usarla, e l’esperimento negli anni futuri forse sarebbe in
grado di assumere una certa consistenza. Non dimentichiamoci che in Cornovaglia
ha avuto grande successo il progetto di riportare in vita l’idioma celtico
ancestrale, che si era estinto verso la fine del XVIII secolo. Allo stesso modo
nei territori baltici della Prussia circa 200 persone parlano tuttora l’idoma
degli antichi Borussi o Prussiani, di recente riportato in vita. In Egitto
circa 300 persone parlano correntemente il Copto, discendente della lingua dei
Faraoni, e altre persone di tale stirpe che hanno recuperato la lingua dei loro
Padri vivono in America e in Australia. Perché quindi non potremmo dare nuova
vita agli idiomi dei nostri Padri Longobardi e Goti? La letteratura avrebbe
un immenso giovamento da questo recupero.
Le langage des Lombards
Marco Moretti
Le mythe
Les Lombards parlaient une langue
appartenant au groupe des langues germaniques occidentales, comme l'allemand,
qui est son plus proche parent encore en usage. Ce peuple, numériquement pas
trčs grande mais brille la gloire, est mentionné pour la premičre fois depuis
Velleius Patercolo et le plus célčbre de Tacite, les rapports son nom dans la
forme, plus correct que celui que nous avons utilisé Lombards. La langue a été
introduit en Italie par le roi Alboin en 568 morts quelques sičcles plus tard,
probablement au début du XIe sičcle. A la fin du VIIIe sičcle, l'historien Paul
Diacre a écrit un intéressant volume d'un autre monde, intitulé Historia
Langobardorum, ou l'Histoire des Lombards. Incomplčte dans ce livre, l'auteur a
décrit les événements de ses pčres depuis quitté la Scandinavie, leur patrie, en
traversant plusieurs pays par des noms de fantaisie long de l'Elbe: Scoringa et
Mauringa, Golanda, Vurgundaib, Banthaib et Anthab. Puis vint le village de
Rugiland sur le moyen Danube, puis de la Pannonie en Italie. Lorsque le
Langobardorum Historia a vu le jour, le royaume des Lombards était maintenant
terminé, vaincu et absorbé l'Empire de Charlemagne, mais son héritage aurait
duré beaucoup plus longtemps. Mais ce travail n'était pas tout ŕ fait
originale, avec ses racines dans le plus ancien manuscrit et auteur inconnus,
appelés Origo gentis Langobardorum. Ainsi commence ce court texte, donner une
explication pour le nom des Lombards:
Il ya une île dans les régions du
nord appelées Scadanan, qui signifie littéralement «massacre» dans laquelle
beaucoup de gens vivent. Parmi eux se trouvait une petite population, ce qui a
été appelé Winnili. Parmi eux se trouvait une femme nommée Gambara et avait
deux fils Ybor était le nom de l'Aio premier et celle du second. Ils étaient
les leaders de Winnili avec sa mčre nommé Gambara. Ainsi, les dirigeants des
Vandales, Ambri et Assi dire, marcha avec son armée, et dit ŕ Winnili:
"Soit nous avons payé des impôts ou de se préparer pour la guerre et la
lutte contre nous." Puis Ybor et Aio Gambara avec sa mčre répondit: «Il
vaut mieux pour nous préparer ŕ combattre plutôt que de rendre hommage aux
Vandales." Donc Ambri et Assi, que les dirigeants des Vandales, Godan prié
de leur accorder la victoire sur Winnili. Godan prit la parole et dit:
«accordera la victoire ŕ la premičre fois que je vais voir le lever du
soleil." Puis Gambara et ses deux fils, Ybor et Aio, qui étaient des chefs
de Winnili invoqué Frea, la femme de Godan, qui protčgent la Winnili. Frea
informés qu'ils presentasseo au lever du soleil, et ils sont venus avec leurs
maris de leurs épouses avec ses cheveux dénoués autour de son visage ŕ la barbe
de mo '. A l'aube au lever du soleil, Frea tourné le lit sur lequel son mari
dormait et se tourna vers l'Est, puis je me suis réveillé. Il ouvrit les yeux
et vit le Winnili et leurs femmes avec les cheveux dénoués autour de son
visage, et dit: «Qui sont tous ces barbes?». Puis Frea Godan a répondu:
"Comme vous l'avez imposé un nom, lui donner la victoire." Depuis
lors, le Winnili prit le nom de Lombards.
Ce passage nous donne quelques
informations sur le développement de la langue des Lombards. Non seulement
affirme le dell'etnonimo origine de LANG "long" et BARD
"barbe" (rapporté que bart par Paul Diacre), mais il nous dit quelque
chose évolution phonétique de la langue. Paul Diacre, le libellé de l'ajout de
quelques notes de mépris de la légende paďenne, ŕ son avis, intolérable, dit
Godan est la divinité que tous les Allemands au culte de Wodan, et au nom de
laquelle les Lombards aurait », a ajouté un point." Cet ajout est trčs
importante. Les mots germaniques adoptée dans le roman vernaculaire qui allait
plus tard donner naissance ŕ la langue italienne et de ses dialectes,
généralement de changer la consonne w-gu-in sont, et est ensuite devenu Werra
guerre, et ainsi de suite. On a toujours pensé que c'était une habitude typique
des haut-parleurs néo-latines dans l'adaptation d'un étranger sonore. Mais le
témoignage de l'Godan forme prouve le contraire: ŕ un moment donné, dans la
langue des Lombards doit ętre devenu w-gu et en face de la voix-o et-u-doit
ętre simplifiée en g-, perdant sa lčvre , similaire ŕ ce qui s'est passé en
gallois. Cette particularité a été frappé par la consonne en question qu'au
début du mot: dans les mots composés ont été écrits au lieu-u-męme-ou-: ainsi
dans les noms propres Albuin, FAROALD, etc. En allemand moderne, le vieux
w-sonne désormais comme notre v-. Dans les dialectes d'origine bavaroise que
celui de la Mocheni Cimbres du Trentin et la Vénétie (ŕ ne pas confondre avec
l'ancien Cimbres) est situé b-, qui pourrait ętre tiré seulement d'un résultat
similaire ŕ celui-gu des Lombards, mais labialisées . Pour terminer cette brčve
étude dell'etnonimo, il convient de noter que dans la tradition scandinave,
plusieurs sičcles aprčs les écrits de Paul Diacre, apparaît Langbarđr, ou
"Longues Barbes", tout comme une épithčte d'Odin. L'épithčte est
potetico nordique et trčs ancienne, étant dans le langage courant le terme
archaďque Barđr remplacé par skegg.
En l'an 643 a été promulgué par le
roi Rotari un édit écrit en latin, mais il contient beaucoup de mots Lombard
conservés intacts. Le fait qu'il ait utilisé le Rotari latine pour recueillir
un corpus de lois organiques traditionnels de son peuple a été considéré par de
nombreux spécialistes comme la preuve que la langue de leurs ancętres avait
laissée presque entičrement ŕ lieu latine. Encore aujourd'hui, cette
interprétation est souvent, tout en étant inexacts. En fait, personne ne semble
avoir remarqué que, au moment de Rotari ne parlait plus du latin utilisé dans
l'édit, qui a été utilisé pour rédiger des documents juridiques que pour des
raisons de prestige. Un des mots les plus célčbres et les plus durables qui se
produisent fréquemment dans le texte est FEUD, qui signifie «se venger». Il ya,
cependant, plus expressif et sombre. Par exemple, le terme peut ętre traduit
PLODRAUB pillage ou de piller le cadavre d'un homme assassiné. Le second
élément du mot-Raub, est RAUBON corradicale du verbe, ce qui a donné ŕ notre
«voler». Le premier élément, PLOD-signifie «sang» (en cours Blut allemand).
Avec RAIRAUB, on entend le fait de voler une tombe, tandis que CRAPUORF indiqué
la profanation dans laquelle un cadavre a été jeté hors de la tombe qu'il
surveillé: CRAP-est un parent de l'allemand Grabe, ou «grave», tout-UORF
indique le concept de «jeter» dans werfen en Allemagne Fédérale. Il s'agissait
d'un terme trčs insultant, ARGA, qui ne doit jamais ętre dirigé vers un homme.
Si cette infraction s'est produite extręme, l'édit mis en place dans plusieurs
cas, la punition: les solutions de rechange étaient ŕ payer une amende de douze
sous retirer l'insulte, et déclarant qu'il avait agi par colčre, ou persister
et faire face au duel. Ce mot, qui indique l'homosexuel passif, était une
insulte si abhorrée par tous les anciens Germains qu'ils doivent ętre lavés
avec du sang. La littérature scandinave documente amplement entre autres, que
ces peuples anciens attribués sodomitical lorsque le pouvoir de féconder un
homme. Paul Diacre nous raconte un épisode significatif dans laquelle le duc
Ferdulf causé une grave défaite et le massacre de son armée, et c'est seulement
parce qu'il se brouilla avec le magistrat militaire local appelé Argait,
faisant allusion ŕ l'étymologie de son nom.
L'autel construit par Ratchis
quand il était duc de Frioul, il ya une inscription dans laquelle il semble que
le mot énigmatique HIDEBOHOHRIT comme épithčte du noble. Ce terme, également
connu sous des formes courtes et HIDEBOHRIT IBORIT, est traduit par
«ressuscité», «réveillé». En général, cette traduction est interprété dans un
sens spirituel, et réfléchir sur le fait que, dans certaines Ratchis
ponctuelles, devenu roi, a été déposé, elle prononça ses vśux et a trouvé
refuge dans le monastčre. Ceci, cependant, a eu lieu aprčs la construction de
l'autel. Vous pouvez supposer que l'épithčte étrange a été compris autrement
désignant le concept de l'homme ŕ la vie aprčs avoir été abattu dans la
bataille. Dans la pratique, ce serait le mot utilisé par les Lombards pour
indiquer un mort vivant, comme un zombie. L'étymologie est inconnue et doit
ętre enraciné dans le répertoire des nécromanciens qui ont enregistré les runes
magiques. Notez que ce mot conserve sons atmosphériques que dans les mots
d'usage courant n'est pas plus prononcée pendant un certain temps. Dans
l'histoire de Paul Diacre l'ILDEOC nom masculin démontre cette perte précoce de
l'aspiration: son origine vient de la racine germanique Hildi-, qui signifie
«combat». De męme, la racine germanique HARI-, qui signifie «armée», apparaît
dans les noms propres tels que IRA, SONT-sans aspiration. Donc Arichis est
"Hostage armée" ARIPERT est "Shining armée", et ainsi de
suite. De la męme base vient aussi le mot «Arengario", ce qui indique
l'anneau sur lequel l'armée a déclaré que son serment est un composé avec RING
"anneau". Le HARIHRING ancienne doit ętre prononcé ARERING puis
ARRING, dans lequel la langue de la population d'origine romaine a ajouté un
suffixe typique.
Juste dans la langue des Lombards
ont le plus ancien témoignage de la rotation dite deuxičme des consonnes. Ce
changement est typique de cette partie du germanique occidental, qui est connu
comme le haut-allemand, a, dans de nombreux contextes la transition entre
consonne sourde s'arręte pour affriquées ou fricatives. C'est la raison pour
laquelle «poivre» Pfeffer l'allemand, était «quoi», Wasser "eau",
Herz "coeur" Koch "cuire", alors que l'anglais est la mise
en correspondance de ces mots, respectivement, poivre, ce qui, l'eau, le coeur,
cuisinier. Un autre effet de la rotation, qui n'est pas exprimée dans tous les
dialectes allemands, c'est la transformation de la consonne occlusive dans le
sourd-b-p au début des racines. Ceci peut ętre vu dans de nombreux noms propres
formés avec les éléments suivants: PRAND "de marque; épée" (marque
allemande), PERG "montagne" (en allemand Berg), PERT
"brillant" (en allemand Bercht). Le brillant tape, ce qui signifie
que la viande avec le sel, correspond ŕ l'anglais du bacon. Il y avait,
cependant, conservé b-dialectes. La transformation qui s'est traduite en
allemand dall'occlusiva son d-t-aux sourds, nous avons seulement vérifié ŕ
Lombard, comme l'a fait l'original consonne-e n'a pas changé, en principe,
d-parole. Donc CHOSE, la Conférence des Arimanni, et correspond ŕ l'allemand
Ding "chose". Les noms formés avec-Theode, THÉOD-«peuple», y compris
Théodelinde correspondent aux noms en allemand sont formés avec Diet-.
L'équivalent du nom Lombard gothique THIUDAREIKS "Théodoric", est
THEODERIS, qui est aussi en allemand Dietrich. Si la langue des Lombards ŕ bien
des égards ressemble ŕ l'ancien haut-allemand, qui est l'ancętre direct de
l'allemand moderne - et en particulier la vieille Bavičre - il convient de
noter que certaines de ses caractéristiques sont trčs différentes. Donc, il n'y
a pas trace dans son dell'Umlaut mots, le metaphonesis qui transforme les
voyelles et est l'un des plus typiques de tous les dialectes allemands
contemporains. Pour cette raison, le Lombard-ARI "armée" sonne
différent de son Heer allemand correspondant: a une voix-pas-un-e. Une autre
différence fondamentale réside dans la préservation de l'héritage
diphtongues-va-et-au-Altico męme lorsque le haut-allemand les a transformés en
simples voix-et-et-O-, respectivement. La racine-RAI, REI-"tombe",
déjŕ vu dans le lemme juridique RAIRAUB, démontre clairement la langue
correspondante des Goths est HRAIW, dont l'écriture domostra nous que la plus
ancienne forme une diphtongue eu, bien que déjŕ ŕ l'époque Wulfila ce mot a été
prononcé HREU avec un esprit ouvert et long. Le RAUFRID prénom masculin se
compose Raud "rouge" (Rot allemand) et FRID "la paix" (en
allemand Friede).
Cependant, il ya des mots qui font
exception aux rčgles phonétiques, parce qu'ils sont en réalité emprunté ŕ la
langue des Goths, qui a été utilisé par les missionnaires de l'Église Ariana.
Ainsi, le Lombard GILD «paiement» (prononcé avec un fort g-) a une
voyelle-i-comme dans Gothic, et contrairement ŕ la Geld allemand. Comparez la
forme Lombard ACTOGILD, équivalent ŕ "huit fois son prix", similaire
ŕ la forme contemporaine de Bavičre NIUNGELD "neuf fois son prix."
Notez que contre Paul Deacon brillant Feld comme «champs ouverts», certifiant
que la parole d'un phonétique typiquement occidental (allemand Feld) - qui
rimava avec GILD - et, en fait, le terme était inconnu de la langue des Goths.
Męme le nom du fondateur IBOR (également orthographié Ybor), ce qui signifie
"sanglier", indique un i-, tandis que l'allemand et de
l'Ouest-(allemand Eber). Remarquable est l'EWA terme «loi éternelle», est
également un pręt de la langue des Goths, qui monottongato les originaux
diphtongues ai-et-au-in ouvert voyelles-e-e-ou-longue, respectivement. Ces
faits nous montrent un réseau d'influences linguistiques pas clairement
reconstruits, compte tenu de notre connaissance trop fragmentaire. Selon
certains chercheurs, les Lombards étaient ŕ l'origine parlaient une langue du
groupe germanique Est, qui a ensuite été soumis ŕ l'influence de la langue
Baiovari, ŕ partir de laquelle d'aujourd'hui Bavičre. L'Allemagne de l'Est
serait un substrat. Je suis enclin ŕ penser qu'il ya eu exactement l'inverse:
germanique orientale a agi comme superstrat ŕ deux moments différents. La
premičre phase de cette influence était ŕ l'époque de la migration en
provenance de Scandinavie, oů Winnili ont été influencés par les gens les plus
puissants et alliés aux Goths: Ne pas oublier que nous a manqué de peu il a
fini affluents des Vandales. La deuxičme phase est venu avec le début de la
conversion du paganisme au traditionnel de l'Église langue aryenne et le
porteur de cette influence est la traduction gothique Bible faite par Wulfila.
Le męme dialecte bavarois contemporain conserve de nombreux pręts de la langue
gothique, y compris EIDE «mčre» (gothique AITHEI) Dult «partie» (gothique
DULTHS) Obsen "porche" (gothique UBIZWA).
Les facteurs qui ont déterminé
l'affaiblissement et la disparition éventuelle de la langue des Lombards
étaient de nature démographique: la population d'origine allemande constitue
qu'un faible pourcentage du total. Pourtant, malgré cela, l'influence qu'il a
exercée sur la męme population romanisée était grande et ne doit pas ętre
minimisé. En fait, aujourd'hui, nous ne disons pas «bon» du latin bellum, mais
«guerre». La liste des mots derničres italien est vraiment cohérente, et que
ces termes sont largement utilisés dans des domaines tels que la Sicile et la
ville de Rome, oů ils n'ont jamais vu les Lombards. Ainsi, la langue des
Lombards ŕ dire «eau», Wazza, WAZZO, d'oů italienne "rosée", "gouache"
- les mots ne sont plus utilisés - et "splash", encore en usage (Wato
gothique, l'allemand Wasser). C'est un exemple qui montre combien de fois les
mots italiens ont un sens moins général que ceux de l'original. De męme, le
terme Lombard ZANNA signifie "dent" (en allemand Zahn). Parfois, nous
avons ŕ faire avec des mots comme Zachar "larme" - oů italienne
"splash", "éclaboussés de boue» et Strunz "bouse" -
d'oů le "trou du cul", qui sont documentées dans le Vieux-haut-allemand,
mais n'ont laissé aucun héritier en allemand moderne . Certains termes utilisés
dans le Moyen Age et aujourd'hui obsolčtes, sont d'autant plus remarquable.
Donc ARIGAIR "lance l'armée", a fait le vieil Italien
"Alighiero", ŕ partir de laquelle le nom de l'immortel Dante.
Dans de nombreux dialectes de la
péninsule vivent alors des mots qui ne sont pas présents dans la norme
italienne. Trousseau de la mariée est appelée SCHERPA en Lombardie, et ce terme
remonte au Lombard SCHERPHA "mobilier" (-ph-rend le son qui est écrit
en allemand moderne-pf-) parrain de l 'est appelé GUAZZ, de la GODAZZO Lombard,
littéralement «pčre en Dieu»: Dieu reconnaissons tous l'anglais et l'allemand
Gott, tandis que la deuxičme partie du composé correspond au gothique ATTA
«pčre». Lombard épaves importantes sont pas seulement dans le Nord, mais aussi
dans le Sud. Il ne faut pas oublier que les coutumes Lombard Bénévent a duré
jusqu'ŕ l'arrivée des Normands et peut-ętre au-delŕ. Dans cette cour, les
descendants de Winnili étaient chrétiens, apparemment, secrčtement adorer
l'image d'un serpent et ornandosi de croix gammées, sacré ŕ Godan. Tombes
lombardes ŕ Benevento montrent encore dans les anthroponymes de la Basse Epoque
non assimilés, tels que ERF, ce qui signifie «Bruno». "Fosco". Męme
dans les Pouilles, il ya une preuve substantielle. N'oubliez pas que les
troubadours de Provence Lombardi a appelé le peuple des Pouilles. Ainsi nous
trouvons dans les articles Pouilles tels que des documents UFFU
"fémur" (en allemand Hüfte "hop"), SCHIZIA "bouse"
(en allemand Scheisse) et MEFFIO «rente de veuve», un mot qui est dans l'édit
de Rotari que METFIO par META "dot" (gothique MIZDO «récompense», en
allemand Miete «loyer») et FIO "argent" (gothique faihu
"argent", allemands Vieh «bétail»).
A ce stade, on peut se demander
s'il ne serait pas opportun de remettre ce riche patrimoine, la reconstruction
de toute la langue et l'apprentissage. Pourrait s'élever ŕ des associations
pour l'utilisation et l'expérience dans les années ŕ venir pourraient ętre en
mesure de prendre une certaine consistance. N'oubliez pas que dans les
Cornouailles a eu beaucoup de succčs le projet de faire revivre la langue
celtique ancestrale, qui s'est éteint dans la fin du XVIIIe sičcle. De męme,
dans les territoires de la Prusse Baltique, environ 200 personnes parlent
encore l'ancien Idoma Borussi ou Prussiens, récemment ramené ŕ la vie. En
Egypte, environ 300 personnes sont ŕ l'aise dans le copte, le descendant de la
langue des pharaons, et les autres personnes de cette race qui ont récupéré la
langue de leurs pčres vivent en Amérique et en Australie. Alors pourquoi ne pas
nous donner une nouvelle vie ŕ la langue de nos pčres Lombards et des Goths? La
littérature aurait un énorme avantage de cette reprise.
Nouveau ! Cliquez sur les mots
ci-dessus pour apporter des
Population germanique Longobardi
(ou Lombards) apparaît dans les sources écrites au 5čme sičcle., Quand il
s'installe dans le Mecklembourg (E de Hambourg).
1. Histoire
1.1 Les origines
Selon l'ancien mythe des origines
lombardes, L., de la Scandinavie, seraient parties du continent européen ŕ la
suite d'une grave famine. La science historique de la migration, toutefois,
tend maintenant ŕ voir le problčme de l'origine des gentes germaniques sous un
angle différent, celui-ci serait formé que lors des migrations et des groupes,
en fonction de différentes traditions, ils ont commencé le migrant voyage,
aurait été un seul élément des gentes arričre de l'âge historique. En ce sens,
L. que les Germains finalement formés ne sont pas les plus anciens de leur
financement dans la zone allemande. Par ailleurs, le męme mythe appelé les
ancętres de Scandinavian L. Winnili (peut-ętre «chiens victorieux»), ce qui
suggčre que, du point de vue de la culture et de l'ethnicité étaient
différentes de L. arričre. La transformation qui a conduit ŕ devenir le L.
Winnili (Le "lungabarba") sur le continent est connecté ŕ l'adoption
du culte guerrier magique de Wotan, le dieu avec une longue barbe, et Asi, et
une accentuation du caractčre belliqueux de la course.
1.2 La descente en Italie. - Je L.
réapparaît dans les sources au cours de la guerre des Romains contre les
Marcomans lors, les alliés de ce dernier a tenté une premičre pénétration du
Danube. Défait, resta encore deux sičcles de la Basse Elbe. En 488 est venu en
Rugiland (Basse-Autriche), dirigée par le roi Vacone, a traversé le Danube
(527-28) pénétrer en Hongrie au moment de leur royaume comprenait également
Bohęme. Dans 547-48 poussé dans le sud de la Pannonie et Norique régions
méditerranéennes clés pour le lien entre l'Italie et les Balkans, et la qualité
de leur nouvelle fédérée traîné le L. dans la grande politique méditerranéenne
de Byzance: tout d'abord en conflit avec les Gépides, puis est devenu impliqué
dans la guerre gréco-gothique comme des alliés des Byzantins, le déclenchement
des hostilités ouvertes contre les Gépides vu aprčs l'L. victorieuse, mais au
prix d'une dangereuse alliance avec les Avars, qui sont devenus la force
dominante dans les Balkans. Pour quitter leur espace, L. ont été contraints de
diriger plus ŕ l'ouest, et dirigée par le roi Alboin en 569 passa en Italie, ŕ
l'époque de l'invasion de l'L. restée presque intacte leur ancienne culture
tribale, le seul élément de l'influence romaine était clair leur conversion au
christianisme aryen.
1.3 Le Lombard-Unis. -
L'occupation de l'Italie par L. n'était pas rapide ou complčte; Alboin partie
occupée de la Vénétie et se dirigea vers Milan et Pavie, et le fait
militairement la plus importante était le long sičge de Pavie, l'ancienne
capitale du royaume gothique, qui se rendit au bout de trois ans. L'assassinat
d'Alboin (pour certaines manśuvres byzantines), peu de temps aprčs la prise de
Pavie (572), a jeté le L. dans le chaos, le blocage de l'élaboration de plans
rationnels de conquęte. Assassiné aprčs deux ans, le nouveau roi Clefi, une
partie de L. est tombé sous l'influence byzantine, d'autre part, la structure
anarchique du L. permis ŕ de nombreux ducs et leur faire non seulement de
rester indépendant, mais aussi de continuer ŕ étendre la zone contrôlée par
eux. Au cours de l'anarchie que l'on appelle Duke (574-84), le pays a été
balayé par des bandes de guerriers qui ont pillé et dévasté; descendit donc ce
qui a été laissé au repos de l'Etat et de l'antiquité tardive social et
culturel, et avec elle la Les sénateurs de la classe des propriétaires
fonciers. En 584, face ŕ la menace réelle d'une invasion de suite avec le L.
ils soumis ŕ la Autari roi, mais le chaos politique ont commencé ŕ défricher
seulement avec son successeur, Agilulfo (590-616).
En cette période a été signée la
paix d'abord avec l'Empire, qui a reconnu le royaume lombard dans son
territoire: elle comprenait le nord de l'Italie (ŕ l'exception du littoral
Vénétie et de la Ligurie), Tuscia, au coeur de l'Ombrie et Marches et vaste du
sud. Déjŕ ŕ cette époque, cependant, il était clair que l'autorité du roi des
Lombards était faible au sud de l'Apennin: les ducs de Spolčte et de Bénévent
représentaient des pouvoirs quasi autonomes. Dans le reste du royaume ducs, des
proches du roi, ont été placés ŕ la tęte de civitates, une ville avec leur
territoire. Dans ce contexte, la figure de l'intendant, ŕ l'origine un simple
administrateur de la terre (les curtes) du roi, ŕ partir du 7čme sičcle. a été
confiée ŕ męme civitates entičres de gouverner ŕ la place du duc. Le roi vivait
ŕ Pavie, oů il avait une palatium, sičge de la cour et une administration
rudimentaire central, le fondement économique de ce qui a été représenté par le
vaste réseau de curtes de propriété royale. Sous Agilulfo et son épouse
Teodolinda une collaboration accrue avec les éléments résiduels des gens
instruits de Rome et a établi une relation de coexistence partielle avec la
papauté, alors représentée par Grégoire le Grand.
1.4 La puissance maximale. - Une
nouvelle phase en conflit ouvert avec les Byzantins eu avec le roi Rotari
(636-52), qui a conquis la Ligurie et a Oderzo et chassa les Byzantins dans le
lagon et les bat ŕ Scultenna. Il a également écrit les lois de son peuple (➔ Rotari), dont la valeur
a été initialement limités, selon toute probabilité, que les Lombards. Dans la
seconde moitié du 7e sičcle. (Fig.) de la dynastie dite des rois de Bavičre
(descendants des Teodolinda Gundoaldo et son frčre, qui avait du sang dans ses
veines Bavičre), se distingue par une ouverture lente mais de plus en plus
clairement au christianisme sous sa forme romaine: en 653, le roi Ariperto j'ai
abandonné l'arianisme et, en 698, avec le synode de Pavie est tombé le dernier
obstacle, représenté par le schisme des Trois Chapitres, contre la population
de l'Italie romaine. Par le 8čme sičcle., Abandonné leur langue pour adopter le
latin de l'Italie, L., catholiques, a fusionné avec la population locale. Dans
le męme temps, le terme «Lombard», guerrier synonyme, peut ętre exercé, Arimanno,
est utilisé pour indiquer un homme libre portant les armes ŕ Lombard armée. Le
moment du pouvoir politique maximale du royaume est venu avec Liutprand
(712-44) qui, en exploitant les graves conflits qui ont affaibli l'Italie
byzantine, déchiré par l'iconoclasme controverse, il a réussi ŕ étendre les
possessions Lombard ŕ Napa, ŕ prendre ŕ court temps Ravenne, pour obtenir aux
portes de Rome et de soumettre les deux duchés de Spolčte et de Bénévent.
1.5 L'
fin du royaume. - Le Liutprand
décisive bloquée, empęchant définitivement effacer les Byzantins, était
représenté par la papauté, dont le prestige contre une nation de nouveaux
convertis était immense. L'Église romaine, avec Grégoire II, Grégoire III et
Zacharie, est alors apparu sur la scčne en tant que société porte sur la
respublica Romanorum, quand la force politique et militaire des Byzantins (sous
réserve, dans l'Est, la tempęte de l'arabe) est apparu en forte baisse.
Lorsque, en vertu Astolfo, dans le męme 750 Ravenne tombe aux mains des Lombards,
le pape Etienne II, face ŕ des demandes lourds par le roi lombard d'un hommage
(qui établit la suprématie de Rome Lombard), il se tourna vers les Francs. Il y
avait donc les deux versants du roi Pépin en Italie: les Francs vaincu le L.
les forçant ŕ abandonner les gains des derničres années, mais n'a pas soumis.
Ce qui s'est passé d'une maničre définitive, le fils de Pépin, Charlemagne, en
774, aprčs le dernier roi lombard Didier avait renouvelé attaques sur le
territoire romain. Karl a pris la couronne lombarde, ŕ la recherche d'un accord
avec l'aristocratie. En 776 une révolte violente de L. Carlo del Friuli
contraint de licencier un certain nombre de Lombard ducs de les remplacer par
des comptes de francs. Cependant, l'aristocratie lombarde ne bougea pas ŕ tous
les leviers du pouvoir local, et malgré les changements introduits par les
conquérants, la société Lombard-Italic conservé beaucoup de ses personnages
avant l'invasion franche. Le statut héritage politique, social et juridique du
royaume lombard, qui s'est poursuivie en Longobardia moins explicitement dans
le sud par les ducs de Bénévent, s'est également poursuivie dans le centre-nord
du duché de Spolčte, va rencontrer dans la réalité plus complexe des âges
centraux du Moyen-italiens.
2. Le Longobardia moins
Il est sud de l'Italie lombarde
échappé conquęte franque: il était le successeur de la Duché lombard de
Bénévent, qui a été fondée au 6čme sičcle. Inclus Campanie, Marsica, Molise,
Abruzzes, les Pouilles, la Calabre, ŕ l'exception de nombreuses zones côtičres,
oů les «grec» des villes (byzantine) de la côte, Naples, Amalfi, Sorrento (plus
au nord Gaeta), a offert une résistance intransigeante ŕ L. intérieur, tout en
restant en contact permanent avec les territoires qu'ils occupaient. Aprčs la conquęte
lombarde du Royaume des Francs, le duc de Bénévent Arechi (758-87) a pris le
titre de prince et défendu l'indépendance de son domaine par les armées de
Charlemagne. Le poids de Byzance, oů il a été relancé par les invasions arabes,
est devenue massive dans le Sud italien et est donc la présence des Arabes ou
Sarrasins.
L'histoire de l'enfant Longobardia
est une série chaotique de conflits internes. Profitant de la guerre civile a
éclaté entre Bénévent et de Salerne, les Arabes pénétrčrent dans le sud en tant
que mercenaires. Aprčs la division de la baisse Longobardia dans les deux
principautés de Bénévent et de Salerne (849), les émirats Sarrasins fondée en
Bari et Taranto bases et pirate ŕ Agropoli et le Garigliano, laborieusement
retiré entre le 9 et le 10 čme sičcle. A la fin du 10čme sičcle. les Byzantins
fondée dans les Pouilles le thčme de Longobardia, qui domine le faible, donc
les princes lombards de Bénévent, Salerne et Capoue. Mais l'extręme
fragmentation du contexte politique, aussi compliquée par la présence
persistante des Sarrasins, a rendu impossible pour l'émergence d'un pouvoir
unique et forte, l'unification męme Longobardia mineur de moins Capodiferro
Lombard prince Pandolfo (d. 981) s'est avéré ętre éphémčre. Au 11čme sičcle.
l'Longobardia moins tombée sous la domination des Normands qui, en 1130, fonda
le royaume de Sicile.
3. Le droit
Installé en Italie, L. continué ŕ
se gouverner selon leurs coutumes, transmis oralement de génération en
génération ou confirmé dans la pratique des tribunaux. L'organisation politique
ŕ long ressentiment de l'idée contraire ŕ la puissance d'un, de sorte que la
loi n'a pas été considéré comme donné ci-dessus, mais il est convenu entre le
roi et le peuple. Dans le domaine des relations privées, la loi Lombard fut
longtemps confiée ŕ des formes et des symboles, comme il est particuličrement
observable dans le processus, dominé par épreuve rituelle ou le jugement de
Dieu seulement en 643 le roi Rotari pensé ŕ une codification écrite, préparée
en latin en 388 chapitres et Edictum droit qui était ŕ la base de la
législation. Les souverains successifs y apportarono seuls ajouts et
modifications. Évolution relativement rapide a eu lieu, cependant, en contact
avec la civilisation de la plus occupée et męme aprčs sa conversion au
catholicisme, suivant les suggestions de l'Eglise de Rome.
4. La langue
. La langue Lombard, qui s'est
éteint complčtement au 10čme sičcle, Gauche, ni la littérature, ni la
documentation directe: tous les dossiers remontent ŕ la période de domination
en Italie (il était particuličrement vital entre la 6čme et 7čme cent.). Ne
reste que des preuves lexicale: direct, des citations ou des adaptations qui
apparaissent dans certains textes (par exemple, dans le Langobardorum Historia
de Paul Diacre: piscine quod eorum langue "lame" dicitur), ou
indirecte, c'est-ŕ nell'onomastica (Herman, Astolfo ), dans la toponymie
(noms-engo comme Marengo, Martinengo) et dans le lexique italien (bagarre,
balle, bouge, balai, etc.).
Le Lombard est une langue indo-européenne
du groupe germanique occidental, contenant, comme le caractčre anglo-saxon
conservatrice, en raison du fait qu'il sépare trčs tôt dans les autres langues
germaniques du groupe et n'a pas participé ŕ certaines caractéristiques des
innovations allemandes.
5. L'art
Intense activité dans le domaine
de l'architecture lombarde était d'autant plus vrai aprčs la conversion de L.
au catholicisme et la fusion progressive avec la population locale, le nombre
de bâtiments (beaucoup retravaillés, certains ont disparu) ils montrent plein
de références classiques, byzantins, orientaux. Significatif, męme pour les
décors importants, S. Salvatore de Brescia (753), S. Maria in Valle de
Cividale, S. Sofia de Bénévent (762, ŕ l'origine en forme d'étoile) et ainsi de
suite. Important sont les traces de la colonies Lombard, qui a causé
l'interruption des romains critčres d'urbanisme. Significative entre les cycles
décoratifs, stucs et fresques de Cividale de Brescia, Castelseprio, San
Vincenzo al Volturno, Benevento. Dans l'ornementation sont caractéristiques des
motifs anthropomorphes et zoomorphes stylisés décorations entrelacées ou
vermicolate, provenant principalement du répertoire germanique et influencés
par des modčles byzantins. Ces aspects revętent une importance particuličre
dans le traitement des métaux, dont L. traditionnellement une technique de
pointe, et qui a constitué une zone de production d'une importance
fondamentale, comme en témoignent les riches meubles trouvés dans la nécropole
(Benevento, Bolsena, Castel Trosino, Civezzano, Cividale, Nocera Umbra, Testona
etc.). Dans les ornements d'armes ou de vętements, d'objets religieux et, en
particulier, se voit dans l'utilisation des bijoux dell'agemina, le filigrane,
l'intégration, la dorure, le damasquinage.
http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/biografie/longoba1.htm
Los lombardos (en latín, langobardi, de
donde procede el nombre alternativo delongobardos) fueron un pueblo germánico originario del Norte de Europa que se asentó en el valle del Danubio y desde allí invadieron la Italia bizantina en 568 bajo el liderazgo deAlboino. Establecieron un Reino de Italia que duró hasta el ańo 774, cuando fue conquistada por los francos.
El
pueblo lombardo
Orígenes
legendarios y nombre
Cruz lombarda.
Umbo lombardo.
El
relato completo de los orígenes lombardos, su historia y prácticas, es la (Historia de los lombardos) de Pablo el Diácono, escrita en el siglo VIII. La principal fuente de Pablo en cuanto a los orígenes lombardos, sin
embargo, es la obra del siglo VII (Origen del pueblo lombardo).
El Origo narra la historia de una pequeńa tribu
llamada los Winnili habitaban en el sur deEscandinavia (Scadanan) (El escribe
que los Winnili primero habitaron cerca de un río llamado Vindilicus en la frontera extrema de la Galia.) Los Winnili se
dividieron en tres grupos y una parte dejó la tierra natal para buscar campos
extranjeros. La razón del éxodo fue probablemente la superpoblación. La gente que se marchó
estaba guiada por los hermanos Ybor y Aio y su madre Gambara y llegaron a las tierras de Scoringa, quizás la costa báltica o el en las orillas del Elba. Scoringa estuvo
gobernada por los vándalos, y sus jefes, los hermanos Ambri y Assi, quienes concedieron a los
Winnili elegir entre el tributo o la guerra.
Los winnili eran jóvenes y valientes y rechazaron
pagar tributo, diciendo «Es mejor conservar la libertad por las armas que
mancharla con el pago del tributo». Los
vándalos prepararon la guerra y consultaron a Godan (el dios Odín ), quien contestó que concedería la victoria a aquellos a quienes él
viera en primer lugar al amanecer. Los winnili eran menores en número y Gambara buscó la ayuda de Frea (la
diosa Frigg ), quien le aconsejó que todas las mujeres winnili debían atar su pelo enfrente de sus
caras como barbas y marchar junto con sus esposos. De manera que Godan vio a
los winnili primero, y preguntó, «żQuiénes son
estos que llevan largas barbas?» y Frea contestó, «Seńor, tú les has dado el
nombre, ahora concédeles también la victoria».Desde aquel momento en adelante,
los winnili fueron conocidos como los langobardos (latinizado e italianizado como lombardos).
Cuando
Pablo el Diácono escribió la Historia entre 787 y 796 era un monje católico y devoto cristiano. Por ello, pensaba que las historia paganas de su gente eran «tontas» y «ridículas». Pablo explicó que el nombre
«langobardo» venía de la longitud de sus barbas, por la palabra latina longus ('largo') y bart ('barba'). Una teoría moderna sugiere que el nombre
«langobardo» viene de Langbarđr,
un nombre de Odín. Priester afirma que cuando los winnili cambiaron su nombre al de «lombardos»,
también cambiaron su antiguo agrícola
al culto de Odín, creando así una tradición tribal consciente. Fröhlich invierte el orden de los
acontecimientos en Priester y afirma que con el culto a Odín, los lombardos
hicieron crecer sus barbas para parecerse al Odín de la tradición y su nuevo
nombre reflejaba esto. Bruckner
remarca que el nombre de los lombardos se encuentra en una relación cercana a
la veneración de Odín, cuyos muchos nombres incluyen «el de la larga barba» o «el de la barba gris», y que el nombre
lombardo Ansegranus ('el que tiene la barba de los
dioses') muestra que los lombardos tenían esta idea de su deidad jefe.
Arqueología y migraciones
Del
testimonio combinado de Estrabón (ańo 20) y Tácito (ańo 117),
los lombardos habitaban cerca de la desembocadura del río Elba poco después del comienzo de la era cristiana, cerca de los . Estrabón
afirma que los lombardos vivieron en ambas orillas del Elba. El arqueólogo alemán Willi Wegewitz
definió varios lugares de enterramiento de la Edad del Hierro en el Elba inferior como langobárdico. Los lugares de enterramiento son
crematorios y usualmente se datan desde el siglo VI a. C. hasta el
III d. C., de manera que parece improbable una ruptura del
asentamiento. Las tierras del
Elba inferior caen en una zona de la cultura de Jastorf y se convirtieron en germánicos del Elba, difiriendo de las tierras entre el Rin, el Weser y el Mar del Norte. Los hallazgos
arqueológicos muestran que los lombardos eran un pueblo agrícola.
Distribución de campos de enterramiento
langobárdicos en las tierras del Elba inferior, según W. Wegewitz.
La
primera mención de los lombardos acontece entre el ańo 9 d. C. y el ańo 16, por el historiador de corteromano Veleyo Patérculo, quien
acompańó a una expedición romana como prefecto de la caballería. Patérculo describió a los lombardos
como «más fieros que los salvajes germanos normales». Tácito contaba a los lombardos entre las tribus suevas, y súbditos de Marobod el Rey de los marcómanos. Marobod había hecho la
paz con los romanos, y por ello los lombardos no formaron parte de la
confederación de germanos a las órdenes de Arminio en la batalla del bosque de Teutoburgo en el ańo 9. En el ańo 17, estalló la guerra entre Arminio y Marobod. Tácito dice:
No
sólo los queruscos y sus confederados... cogieron las armas, sino los senones y
los longobardos, ambos naciones suevas, se rebelaron contra él de la soberanía
de Marobod... Los ejércitos... fueron estimulados por sus propias razones, los
queruscos y los lombardos lucharon por su antiguo honor o su recién adquirida
independencia...
En
47, estalló una lucha entre los queruscos y expulsaron a su nuevo líder, el sobrino de Arminio, de su país. Los
lombardos aparecen en la escena con suficiente poder, al parecer, para
controlar el destino de la tribu que, treinta y ocho ańos antes, había sido el
líder de la lucha por la independencia, pues ellos restauraron al depuesto
líder de nuevo a la soberanía. A
mediados del siglo II, los lombardos también aparecen en Renania. Según Ptolomeo, los lombardos suevos se asentaron en al sur de los sicambrios, pero también
permanecieron en el Elba, entre los chauci y los suevos, que indican una expansión lombarda. El Codex Gothanus también menciona Patespruna (Paderborn) en relación con los lombardos. Dión Casio nos informa de que justo antes de las Guerras Marcomanas, 6.000
lombardos y los ubios cruzaron el Danubio e invadieron Panonia. Las dos tribus fueron
derrotadas, de ahí que desistieran de su invasión y enviaran a Ballomar, rey de
los marcomanos, como embajador ante ,
quien estaba entonces administrando Panonia. Se hizo la paz y las dos tribus
volvieron a su hogar, que en el caso de los lombardos estaba en las tierras del
Elba inferior. Por esta época,
Tácito, en su obra Germania (98 d. C.), describe a los
lombardos de la siguiente manera:
A
los langobardos, por el contrario, su escaso número los distingue. Aunque
rodeados por una hueste de tribus más poderosas, están seguros, no
sometiéndose, sino desafiando los peligros de la guerra.
Del siglo II en adelante, muchas de las tribus germánicas de la época del emperador
Tiberio comenzaron a unirse en grandes uniones tribales, dando como resultado a
los francos, alamanes, bávaros y sajones. La razón por la que los
lombardos desaparecen como tales de la historia romana en el período 166–489
podría ser que habitaban tan profundamente en la Germania interior que sólo se
les detectó cuando reaparecieron en las orillas del Danubio, o bien que los
lombardos también se vieron sometidos a una tribu más grande, probablemente los
sajones. Es, sin embargo,
bastante probable que cuando el grueso de los lombardos emigraron, una parte
considerable permaneció detrás y más adelante fueron absorbidos por las tribus
sajonas en la región, mientras que sólo los emigrantes conservaron el nombre de
lombardos. Sin embargo, el Codex Gothanus escribe que los lombardos fueron
sometidos por los sajones alrededor del ańo 300, pero se alzaron de nuevo
contra los sajones con su rey Agelmundo. En
la segunda mitad del siglo IV, los lombardos dejaron su hogar, probablemente
debido a cosechas difíciles, y se embarcaron en su migración.
La
ruta de migración de los lombardos, desde su tierra natal a Rugiland en 489, abarcaba diversos lugares: Scoringa (que se cree que es su tierra en las
orillas del Elba), Mauringa, Golanda, Anthaib, Banthaib, y Vurgundaib (Burgundaib). Según el Anónimo de Rávena, Mauringa era
la tierra al este del Elba.
El
cruce a Mauringa era muy difícil, los assipitti
(usipetes) les denegaron el
paso a través de sus tierras; se arregló una lucha entre el hombre más fuerte
de cada tribu, el lombardo resultó victorioso, les permitieron el paso y los
lombardos alcanzaron Mauringa. El
primer rey lombardo, Agelmundo, de la raza de ,
gobernó durante treinta ańos.
Territorio lombardo en 526.
Los
lombardos se fueron de Mauringa y alcanzaron Golanda. El erudito Ludwig Schmidt
cree que esto era más al este, quizás en la orilla derecha del Oder. Schmidt considera que el
nombre es el equivalente deGotland y significa simplemente 'buena tierra'. Esta teoría es muy plausible, Pablo el Diácono menciona un episodio de los lombardos cruzando un río, y los lombardos
podrían haber alcanzado Rugiland desde el Oder superior a través de la Puerta Morava.
Marchándose
de Golanda, los lombardos pasaron a través de Anthaib y Banthaib hasta que
alcanzaron Vurgundaib. Vurgundaib se cree que eran las tierras antiguas de los burgundios. En Vurgundaib, los
lombardos fueron derrotados en el campo por los «búlgaros» (probablemente hunos) y fueron derrotados; el
rey Agelmundo fue asesinado. Laimicho fue ascendido al reinado más tarde;
estaba en su juventud y deseaba vengar la muerte de Agelmundo. Los lombardos mismos eran
probablemente súbditos de los hunos tras la derrota, pero los lombardos se
alzaron de nuevo contra ellos y los derrotaron con gran matanza. La victoria dio a los lombardos un
gran botín y confianza pues ellos «...se hicieron más atrevidos a la hora de
enfrentarse en la guerra».
En
los ańos 540, (que gobernó entre 546 y
565) guio a los lombardos al otro lado del Danubio de nuevo hacia Panonia Se establecieron allí gracias a un foedus de 540, pues Justiniano los animó a luchar contra los gépidos para tenerlos por aliados y servir de barrera a Italia contra las
invasiones de otros pueblos bárbaros. Dado que Justiniano les había ayudado en
una guerra contra los gépidos, lucharon a cambio contra los ostrogodos.
El reino de los lombardos en Italia
En
560 surgió un nuevo y enérgico rey: Alboíno, que derrotó a sus vecinos gépidos, les hizo sus súbditos y en 566, se casó con la hija de su reyCunimundo, Rosamunda. En la primavera del ańo 568, Alboíno forzó el limes del Friuli junto a un ejército en el que no sólo había lombardos, sino también
otras tribus germánicas, como bávaros, gépidos, sajones ) y búlgaros. Entre 400.000 y 500.000 lombardos cruzaron los Alpes Julianos e invadieron el norte de Italia (la población romana en el norte de Italia era aproximadamente de 2
millones de personas) debido a la presión de losávaros. En aquel momento Longino, que había sucedido a Narsés en el gobierno de Italia con el título de exarca, no esperaba esta invasión. En el verano de 569, los lombardos
conquistaron el centro romano del Norte de Italia, Milán. La zona estaba entonces recuperándose de las terribles guerras góticas,
y el pequeńo ejército bizantino dejado para su defensa no pudo
hacer nada.
Posteriormente
cayó Pavía, tras un asedio de tres ańos, en 572, convirtiéndose en la primera capital del nuevo reino lombardo de
Italia. Al ańo siguiente, los lombardos penetraron más al sur, conquistando la
región de Toscana. Posteriormente, las tribus lombardas también se instalaron en el
centro y el sur de Italia estableciendo los ducados de Spoleto y Benevento, que pronto se hicieron semi-independientes. Los bizantinos consiguieron conservar el control de la región de Rávena y Roma, unidos
por un estrecho corredor que discurría a través de Perugia.
Cuando
entraron en Italia, algunos lombardos conservaron su forma nativa de paganismo, mientras que algunos eran cristianos arrianos. De ahí que no tuvieran buenas relaciones con la Iglesia católica, a la que persiguieron con el celo de neófitos. Gradualmente, adoptaron títulos
romanos, nombres y tradiciones, y en parte se convirtieron a la ortodoxia
(siglo VII), no sin una larga serie de conflictos religiosos y étnicos.
A
consecuencia de estos sucesos, se formaron en el territorio conquistado por los
lombardos treinta y seis ducados independientes, pero esta desmembración fue
perjudicial para ellos y funesta para Italia. Sus líderes se asentaron en las
ciudades principales. El rey gobernaba sobre ellos y administraba la tierra a
través de emisarios llamados gastaldi.
Esta subdivisión, sin embargo, junto con la independiente falta de docilidad de
los ducados, privó al reino de su unidad, debilitándolo incluso en comparación
con los bizantinos, especialmente después de que empezaron a recuperarse de la
invasión inicial. Esta debilidad se hizo todavía más evidente cuando los
lombardos tuvieron que enfrentarse con el creciente poder de los francos. En
respuesta a este problema, los reyes intentaron centralizar el poder a lo largo
del tiempo; pero perdieron el control sobre Spoleto y Benevento definitivamente en el intento.
La
invasión lombarda, por otro lado, destruyó el limes de Friul y las plazas fuertes del Véneto. En consecuencia, esta zona quedó abierta a que otros bárbaros cruzaran
los Alpes y la invadieran. Así lo hicieron los ávaros y los eslavos, que atacaron las llanuras llegando en ocasiones hasta el mar Adriático.
Estructura
social
Idioma
El idioma lombardo está extinto. El idioma germánico declinó a partir del siglo VII,
pero pudo seguir conservando un uso disperso hasta alrededor del ańo 1000. El
idioma sólo se conserva fragmentariamente, siendo la principal evidencia
palabras individuales citadas en textos latinos. En ausencia de textos lombardos, no es posible llegar a ninguna
conclusión sobre la sintaxis y morfología del idioma. La clasificación genética
del lenguaje está basada necesariamente de forma total sobre la fonología.
Puesto que hay evidencia de que el lombartico participó en él, y de hecho
muestra algo de la evidencia más antigua para, el , está clasificado como un o dialecto alemán superior.
Fragmentos
longobárdicos están conservados en inscripciones rúnicas. Entre los textos de fuentes primarias se encuentran breves
inscripciones enfuthark antiguo, entre ellos la «cápsula de bronce de »
(h. 600). Hay un número de textos latinos que incluyen nombres lombárdicos, y
textos legales lombardos contienen términos tomados del vocabulario legal
vernáculo. En 2005, hubo algunas pretensiones de que la inscripción de la pueda ser lombarda.
Sociedad del período de la migración
Los
reyes lombardos pueden remontarse hasta alrededor del ańo 380 y por lo tanto a
comienzos de la Gran Migración. El reinado se desarrolló entre los pueblos
germánicos con la unidad de un solo mando militar se consideró necesario.
Schmidt creía que las tribus germánicas se dividieron porcantones y que el gobierno más antiguo fue una asamblea general que seleccionaba
los jefes de los cantones y los líderes guerreros de los cantones (en tiempos
de guerra). Tales figuras probablemente estaban seleccionados entre una casta
de nobles. Como resultado de las guerras de su vagabundeos, el poder real se
convirtió en tal manera que el rey se convirtió en representante del pueblo;
pero la influencia del pueblo sobre el gobierno no desapareció completamente. Pablo el Diácono da un relato de la
estructura tribal lombarda durante la migración:
...para
poder incrementar el número de sus guerreros, conferir libertad a muchos de aquellos
a los que liberan del yugo de la esclavitud, y que la libertad de estos puede
considerarse establecida, ellos confirmaron en su forma acostumbrada por una
flecha, pronunciando ciertas palabras de su país en confirmación del hecho.
La
completa emancipación parece haberse garantizado sólo entre los francos y los
lombardos.
Sociedad del reino católico
La
sociedad lombarda estaba dividida en clases comparables a aquellos que se
encuentran en los otros estados sucesores germánicos de Roma: Galia franca y la Espańa visigótica. Los lombardos confiscaron las tierras y aniquilaron la nobleza
autóctona, fuera esta romana o goda. Esta
clase noble ocupaba el escalón superior de la sociedad. Por debajo de ellos,
había una clase de hombres libres; después estaban los siervos, no esclavos
pero tampoco libres y, finalmente, los esclavos. La aristocracia lombarda era
más pobre, más urbanizada, y menos vinculada a la tierra que la de los otros
pueblos germánicos. Además de los más ricos y poderosos duques y el propio rey,
los nobles lombardos tendieron a vivir en ciudades, a diferencia de sus
equivalentes francos. Sus posesiones de tierra eran poco más del doble que la
tierra que poseía un comerciante, lo que está muy lejos de la aristocracia franca provincial, que poseían vastas extensiones de tierra cientos de veces
mayores que las de los hombres de la clase social inmediatamente inferior. La
aristocracia del siglo VIII dependía en gran parte del rey para obtener ingresos relacionados
especialmente con deberes judiciales: muchos nobles lombardos están mencionados
en documentos contemporáneos como iudices (jueces) incluso cuando sus cargos
tenían también importantes funciones militares y legislativas.
Los
hombres libres del reino lombardo eran bastante más numerosos que entre los
francos, especialmente en el siglo VIII, cuando son casi invisibles en la
evidencia documental superviviente para los últimos. Pequeńos terratenientes,
propietarios-cultivadores, y renteros son los tipos más numerosos de personas
en los diplomas que quedan del reino lombardo. Pueden haber poseído más de la mitad de
la tierra en la Italia lombarda. Los hombres libres
eran exercitales y viri
devoti, esto es, 'soldados' y 'hombres devotos' (un término militar como
«criados»); ellos formaron la leva del ejército lombardo y fueron, aunque infrecuentemente, a veces
llamados a servir, aunque esto parece que no ha sido su preferencia. La clase
de pequeńos propietarios de la tierra, sin embargo, carecieron de la influencia
política necesaria con el rey (y los duques) para controlar la política y la
legislación del reino. La aristocracia era más rigurosamente política si no
económicamente en Italia que en la Galia contemporánea y Espańa.
La
urbanización de la Italia lombarda estaba caracterizada por la cittŕ ad isole ('ciudad en isla'). Resulta de la
arqueología que las grandes ciudades de la Italia lombarda —Pavía, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milán— estaban ellas a su vez formadas por pequeńas islas de urbanización
dentro de las murallas de la antigua ciudad romana. Las ciudades del Imperio
romano ha sido parcialmente destruida en la serie de guerras de los siglos V y
VI. Muchos sectores quedaron en ruinas y los antiguos monumentos se
convirtieron en campos de hierba usados como pastos para animales, así el Foro Romano se convirtió en el campo
vaccinio: el 'campo vacuno'. Las porciones de las ciudades que
permanecieron intactas eran pequeńas y modestas y contenían una catedral o una
iglesia principal (a menudo suntuosamente decorada) y unos pocos edificios
públicos y ciudades natales de la aristocracia. Pocos edificios de importancia
eran de piedra, la mayor parte eran de madera. Al final, las partes habitadas
de las ciudades estaban separadas unas de otras por franjas de pasto incluso
dentro de las murallas ciudadanas.
En
esta época tuvo especial relieve la capital de los lombardos, Pavía. Era centro administrativo en donde se encontraba la Cámara real, o
sea, latesorería u organismo financiero del reino lombardo; pero igualmente era metrópoli
religiosa, primero del arrianismo y luego del catolicismo, en la que se celebraron sínodossobispales.
Historia
religiosa
Paganismo
Las
primeras indicaciones de la religión lombarda muestran que ellos originariamente
veneraban a los dioses germánicos del panteón Vanir mientras estaban en Escandinavia. Después de establecerse a lo largo de
la costa báltica, a través del contacto con otros germanos adoptaron el culto
de los dioses Aesir, un cambio que representaba un cambio cultural desde una sociedad
agrícola a una sociedad guerrera.
Tras
su migración a Panonia, los lombardos entraron en contacto con los sármatas . De estos pueblos tomaron prestado una larga costumbre de simbolismo
religioso. Un largo palo coronado por la figura de un pájaro, usualmente una
paloma, derivada de los estandartes usados en batalla, se colocaba por la
familia en el terreno en la casa de un hombre muerto en el campo de batalla en guerra y quien no podía ser traído a casa para el funeral y
enterramiento. Usualmente el pájaro estaba orientado hacia el punto en que el
guerrero había caído.
Cristianización
Estando
en Panonia, los lombardos fueron afectados por vez primera por el cristianismo,
pero sólo tocaso: su conversión y cristianización era ampliamente nominal y
lejos de completarse. Durante el reinado de ,
ellos eran católicos aliados con el Imperio bizantino, pero Alboino se convirtió alarrianismo como un aliado de los ostrogodos e invadieron Italia. Todas estas conversiones cristianas sólo afectaron,
durante la mayor parte, la aristocracia; la gente común siguió siendo pagana.
En
Italia, los lombardos fueron intensamente cristianizados y la presión de
convertirse al catolicismo era grande. Con la reina bávara , una católica, la monarquía fue
llevada bajo una fuerte influencia católica. Después del apoyo inicial para los Tres Capítulos, Teodelinda permaneció en estrecho contacto y apoyo del papa Gregorio I. En 603, Adaloaldo, el heredero al trono, recibió un bautismo católico. Durante el siglo
siguiente, el arrianismo y el paganismo siguieron existiendo en Austria (al
noreste de Italia) y el ducado de Benevento. Una sucesión de reyes arrianos
eran militarmente agresivos y representaban una amenaza al Papado en Roma. En
el siglo VII, la aristocracia nominalmente cristiana de Benevento aún practicaba
rituales paganos, tales como sacrificios en bosques «sagrados». Al final del
reinado de , sin embargo, los
lombardos se habían vuelto más o menos católicos por completo. Bajo Liutprando, el catolicismo se convirtió en real conforme el rey buscaba justificar
su título de rex totius
Italiae al unir el sur de la
península con el norte y juntar a sus súbditos ítalo-romanos y los germánicos
en un solo estado católico.
La regla de san Benito en una escritura de Benevento
(esto es, lombardo).
Cristianismo en Benevento
El
ducado y eventualmente principado de Benevento en Italia meridional desarrolló un rito cristiano único en los siglos VII y VIII. El rito de Benevento está
relacionado más estrecvhamente con la liturgia del rito ambrosiano que el rito romano. El rito de Benevento no ha sobrevivido en esa forma completa, aunque
la mayoría de las principales fiestas y varias fiestas de significado local aún
existen. El rito de Benevento parece haber sido menos completo, menos
sitemático y más litúrgicamente flexible que el rito romano.
Característico
de este rito era el canto beneventano, un canto de
influencia lombarda que lleva similaridades con el canto ambrosiano del Milán lombardo. El canto beneventino está definido ampliamente por
su papel en la liturgia del rito beneventino; muchos cantos beneventinos
tuvieron asignados múltiples roles cuando se insertan en los cantorales
gregorianos, apareciendo variadamente como antífonas, ofertorios y comuniones,
por ejemplo. Fue con el tiempo suplantado por el canto gregoriano en el siglo XI.
El
princiopal dentro de canto beneventino era Montecassino, uno de los primeros y más grandes abadías del . Gisulfo II de Benevento ha donado una gran parte de tierra a Montecassino en 744 y que se
convirtió en la base de un estado importante, el Terra Sancti Benedicti, que estaba sometido sólo a Roma. La influencia de Montecassino sobre
el cristianismo en el sur de Italia fue inmensa. Montecassino era también el
punto de comienzo de otra característica del monacato beneventino: el uso de
una distintiva, una forma de
escritura clara, angular, derivada de la cursiva romana tal como se usaba por los lombardos.
Arte y arquitectura
La Basílica
autariana en Fara Gera d'Adda.
Durante
su fase nómada, los lombardos crearon poco arte del que no pudiera llevarse
fácilmente con ellos, como armas y joyería. Aunque ha sobrevivido relativamente
poco de estas obras, se asemejan a las de las demás tribus germánicas del norte
y centro de Europa de la misma época.
Las
primeras grandes modificaciones del estilo germánico de los lombardos
acontecieron en Panonia y especialmente en Italia, bajo la influencia de los estilos locales, bizantino y paleocristiano. De nómadas paganosse convirtieron en sedentarios cristianos y ello también se abrió nuevas formas de expresión artística, tales como la arquitectura (especialmente iglesias) y las artes
decorativas que la acompańan (como frescos).
Pocos
edificios lombardos han sobrevivido. La mayor parte se han perdido, reconstruido,
o renovado en algún momento, de modo que conservan poco de su estructura
lombarda original. La arquitectura lombarda ha sido bien estudiada en el siglo XX, y los cuatro volúmenes de Lombard
Architecture (1919) resultan
un «monumento de historia ilustrada».
Interior del llamado tempietto longobardo (templo lombardo), Oratorio di Santa
Maria in Valle enCividale del Friuli.
El
pequeńo en Cividale del Friuli es probablemente una de las piezas conservadas más antiguas de
arquitectura lombarda, pues Cividale fue la primera ciudad lombarda en Italia.
Aquí se encuentran además las piezas más destacadas de la escultura lombarda,
influida grandemente por el estilo bizantino: el altar del rey Rachis (740) y las santas.
Se
han conservado partes de construcciones lombardas en Pavía (, criptas de y ) y Monza (catedral). La Basílica
autariana en Fara Gera d'Adda cerca de Bérgamo y la iglesia de San Salvatore en Brescia también tienen elementos lombardos. Todos estos edificios se encuentran
en Italia septentrional (Langobardia major), Sin embargo, la estructura
lombarda mejor conservada se encuentra en la Italia meridional (Langobardia
minor). Se trata de la en Benevento; fue erigida en 760 por el duque Arechis II. Conserva frescos lombardos en las paredes e incluso capiteles lombardos en las columnas.
Corona férrea en el tesoro de lacatedral de Monza.
La
arquitectura lombarda floreció gracias al impulso dado por los monarcas católicos como , Liutprando yDesiderio a la fundación de monasterios para promover su control político. En esta
época se fundó la abadía de Bobbio.
Algunas
de las estructuras lombardas tardías de los siglos IX y X contienen los
elementos de estilo asociados con la arquitectura románica y han sido llamados «primer románico». Se considera que estos edificios, junto con otros similares en el sur de Francia y Cataluńa, marcan una fase transitoria entre el prerrománico y el románico pleno.
Como
la mayoría de los pueblos germánicos, los lombardos destacan en las artes aplicadas, lo que tiene su lógica dentro de una tradición nómada en que la fortuna se invertía no en la tierra, sino en objetos que
podían llevar consigo, como las joyas, la ropa o las armas. Los lombardos recibieron influencias escito-sármatas, con rasgos propios del arte de las estepas que incluía la representación de animales fantásticos, como grifos; estos temas pasaron a la orfebrería goda por influencia de los lombardos. Merece
especial mención el tesoro de la catedral de Monza, que se
adjudica a la reina Teodolinda y que incluye la Corona Férrea de los longobardos, que se dice hecha con un clavo de la cruz de Cristo.
Notas
Bibliografía
·
Franz Georg Maier. Las transformaciones del mundo
mediterráneo. Siglos III–VIII, p. 375. — Siglo XXI, México D.F., 1998. ISBN
968-23-0887-9
·
Pablo el Diácono. Historia
Langobardorum (ed. Georg
Waitz, MGH SS rerum Langobardicarum, Hannover 1878) 12–187. (ed. Lidia Capo,
Milano 1992)
·
«Aristocratic Power in Eight-Century Lombard Italy», After Rome's
Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History, Essays presented to Walter Goffart, Toronto: University
of
Toronto Press, 1998, pp. 153–170, ISBN 0-8020-0779-1
·
Christie, Neil (1995). The Lombards: the
ancient Longobards. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford:
Blackwell.
· Everett, Nicholas (2003). Literacy in Lombard Italy, C. 568–774. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521819059, 9780521819053.
· Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II—The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1926.
·
Giess, Hildegard.
"The Sculpture of the Cloister of Santa Sofia in Benevento
(in Notes)." The
Art Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 3. (Sep., 1959), pp. 249–256
·
Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476–918. Londres,
1914
·
Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and
Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare. 2004. ISBN
0-8133-9153-9
·
Karin Priester. Geschichte der Langobarden /
Gesellschaft – Kultur – Altagsleben. Theiss
·
Wilfried Menghin. Die Langobarden / Geschichte und
Archäologie. Theiss
·
Codex Gothanus
·
Historia gentis
Langobardorum
·
Origo gentis
Langobardorum
·
Dr. Ludwig Schmidt. Älteste Geschichte der Langobarden
·
Thomas Hodgkin. Italy and her Invaders.
Clarendon Press
·
Wilhelm Bruckner. Die Sprache der Langobarden
·
Cosmógrafo de Rávena
·
Friedrich Bluhme. Gens Langobardorum
·
Freiherren von
Hammerstein-Loxten. Bardengau
·
Kaspar Zeuss. Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme
·
Robert Wiese. Die aelteste Geschichte der
Langobarden
·
Ludo Moritz Hartmann. Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter
II Vol.
·
Tácito. Anales
·
Tácito. Germania
·
Willi Wegewitz. Das Langobardische brandgräberfeld
von Putensen, Kreise Harburg
·
Grimm. Deutsche Mythologie
·
Hermann Fröhlich. Studien zur langobardischen
Thronfolge — Zur Herkunft der Langobarden –
Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken (QFIAB)
·
Walter Pohl und Peter
Erhart, Die Langobarden /
Herrschaft und Identität
·
Hallenbeck, Jan T.
"Pavia and Rome: The Lombard Monarchy and the Papacy in the Eighth
Century", Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society New
Series, 72.4 (1982), pp.
1–186
·
Rothair;
Grimwald; Liutprand; Ratchis; Aistulf; Katherine Fischer Drew
(Translator, Editor); Edward Peters (Foreward) (1973). The Lombard Laws. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1055-7.
·
Dom
·
Litwa Lietuva
dawniej i dzisiaj
0
Wandzie
legendy wspołczesne i dawne
Herby Bogini
krakowskiej księżniczki Wandy
|
|
W
herbach, dawna bogini, |
O
księżniczce Wandzie
|
imię
o niejasnej etymologii. Najprawdopodobniej zostało wymyślone przez
Wincentego Kadłubka na potrzeby jego Kroniki (legenda o
księżniczce Wandzie, córce Kraka). Później wykorzystane
także przez Długosza. Początkowo (XII-XIV wiek) zapisywano je
jako Węda, być może od starosłowiańskiego słowa
węda ("wędka"), co dawniej wymawiano z nosowym A (wanda).
Zgodnie z legendą bowiem "uroda Wandy łowiła
rycerzy". Niektórzy badacze wywodzą rdzeń tego imienia od
litewskiego słowa vandene ("rusałka") albo vanduo
("woda, fala"). Z kolei w języku niemieckim wyraz Wenedka
posiadał znaczenie "Łużyczanka, Słowianka".
Inne źródła podają, że Wanda to skrót germańskich
imion typu Wendelburg czy Wendelgard. Jedna z najbardziej niezwykłych teorii
podaje, iż imię to powstało od nazwy plemienia Wandalów lub
imienia starożytnego wodza Chorwatów - Avandzy. Z Polski imię Wanda
powędrowało w świat: do Niemiec, Francji i Ameryki. |
Fragment obrazu Jana Vermeera |
O Kraku i Wandzie
z Kroniki Polskiej W. Kadłubka
|
|
Krak |
(...)Wieść
również głosi, że wtedy Gallowie zagarnęli rządy na
całym prawie świecie. Nasze zastępy w licznych walkach
wybiły wiele ich tysięcy. Pozostałych, długi czas
udręczonych, [nasi] skłonili do zawarcia przymierza, tak że
jeśliby bądź losem, bądź męstwem zyskali coś
u obcych, jednym i drugim równy miał przypaść udział. (...)
Gdy po licznych walkach z Rzymianami, po przebyciu wielu niebezpieczeństw
wojennych zajęli miasta, ustanawiają namiestników, obierają
sobie księciem pewnego człowieka imieniem Grakchus. Wreszcie jednak
zgnuśnieli od zbytków, z wolna zatraciwszy hart przez swawolę
niewiast; znakomitsi ludzie tego plemienia [Gallów] zginęli otruci,
wszyscy inni poddali karki pod jarzmo tubylców. I tak tych, których nie
zwyciężył żaden oręż, zwycięża
gnuśność niewielu.
(...) Odtąd niejednego zaczęła brać oskoma na
cząstkę panowania. Dlatego to Grakch, powracając z Karyntii,
jako że miał dar wypowiadania głębokich myśli,
zwołuje na wiec całą gromadę, twarze wszystkich ku sobie
zwraca, wszystkich życzliwość pozyskuje, u wszystkich posłuszeństwo
sobie jedna. Mówi, iż śmieszne jest okaleczałe bydlę, bezgłowy
człowiek; tym samym jest ciało bez duszy, tym samym lampa bez
światła, tym samym świat bez słońca — co państwo
bez króla. Albowiem dusza podsyca działanie odwagi, światło
czyni jasnym ogląd rzeczy, słońce wreszcie uczy
rozsyłać do wszystkich dobroczynne promienie. Tymi promieniami jak
najgodniej niby klejnotami wysadzony jest diadem na królewskiej głowie:
tak, iż na czole jaśnieje wielkoduszność, na potylicy
oględność, po bokach z obu stron hojne blaski śle brylant
dzielności. Obiecuje, że jeżeli go wybiorą, to nie królem
będzie, lecz wspólnikiem królestwa. [Bowiem] „wierzy, iż zrodzon nie
sobie jest, lecz światu całemu". Wszyscy przeto pozdrawiają
go jako króla. [A on] stanowi prawa, ogłasza ustawy. Tak więc
powstał zawiązek naszego prawa obywatelskiego i nastały jego
urodziny. Albowiem przed nim wolność musiała ulegać
niewoli, a słuszność postępować krok w krok za
niesprawiedliwością. I sprawiedliwe było to, co
największą korzyść przynosiło najmożniejszemu.
Atoli surowa sprawiedliwość nie od razu zaczęła
władać. Odtąd jednak przestała ulegać przemożnemu
gwałtowi, a sprawiedliwością nazwano to, co sprzyja najbardziej
temu, co może najmniej.
Polska zasię, przez Grakcha doprowadzona do
świetnego rozkwitu, byłaby na pewno uznała jego potomka za
najgodniejszego następcę tronu, gdyby drugiego z jego synów nie
zhańbiła zbrodnia bratobójstwa.
Był bowiem w załomach pewnej skały okrutnie
srogi potwór, którego niektórzy zwać zwykli całożercą.
Żarłoczności jego każdego tygodnia według wyliczenia
dni należała się określona liczba bydła. Jeśliby
go mieszkańcy nie dostarczyli, niby jakichś ofiar, to byliby przez
potwora pokarani utratą tyluż głów ludzkich. Grakch, nie
mogąc znieść tej klęski, jako że był
względem ojczyzny tkliwszym synem niż ojcem względem synów,
skrycie synów wezwawszy, przedstawił [im swój] zamiar, radę
przedłożył. „Nieprzyjazna jest — rzecze — dzielności
bojaźliwość, siwiźnie nierozum, młodości
gnuśność. Żadna to bowiem dzielność, skoro
bojaźliwa, żadna siwej głowy mądrość, skoro
nierozumna, żadna młodość, skoro gnuśna. Co
więcej, skoro nie ma żadnej sposobności do ćwiczenia
odwagi, to trzeba ją sobie wymyślić. Któż zatem
kiedykolwiek uchyliłby się od sławy, która narzuca się
sama, chyba że byłby to ktoś wręcz niesławny! A
przecież dobro obywateli, obronione i zachowane, do wiecznych wchodzi
triumfów. Nie należy bowiem dbać o własne ocalenie, ilekroć
zachodzi wspólne niebezpieczeństwo. Wam przeto, wam, naszym
ulubieńcom, których tak jednego, jak i drugiego wychowaliśmy
według naszych umiejętności, wam wypada uzbroić się,
aby zabić potwora, wam przystoi wystąpić do walki z nim, ale nie
wystawiać się [zbytnio], jako że jesteście połową
naszego życia, którym należy się następstwo w tym
królestwie".
Na to oni: „Zaiste, można by nas uważać za zatrutych
pasierbową nienawiścią, gdybyś nam pożałował
tak chlubnego zadania! Do ciebie należy władza rozkazywania, do nas —
konieczność posłuchu".
Gdy więc doświadczyli po wielekroć otwartej
męskiej walki i daremnej najczęściej próby sił, zmuszeni
zostali wreszcie uciec się do podstępu. Bowiem zamiast bydląt
podłożyli w zwykłym miejscu skóry bydlęce, wypchane
zapaloną siarką. I skoro połknął je z wielką
łapczywością całożerca, zadusił się od
buchających wewnątrz płomieni.
|
Arras .Walka smoka z gepardem Wg legendy Wincentego
Kadłubka pogromcą smoka był syn króla Kraka, a smok
został zgładzony w 700 r. n.e. |
Piewsza strona wydania Historii Polski z 1612 r. |
Arras. Brat zabija brata |
I zaraz potem młodszy napadł i
zgładził brata, wspólnika zwycięstwa i królestwa, nie jako
towarzysza, lecz jako rywala. Za zwłokami jego z krokodylowymi
postępuje łzami. Łże, jakoby zabił go potwór, ojciec
jednak radośnie przyjmuje go jako zwycięzcę. Często bowiem
żałoba przezwyciężona zostaje radością ze zwycięstwa.
Tak oto młodszy Grakch przejmuje władzę po
ojcu, dziedzic zbrodniczy! Atoli dłużej skalany był
bratobójstwem niż odznaczony władzą. Gdy bowiem wkrótce potem
oszustwo wyszło na jaw, gwoli kary za zbrodnię skazany został na
wieczne wygnanie:
(...) A owszem, na skale całożercy wnet założono
sławne miasto, od imienia Grakcha nazwane Gracchovia, aby wiecznie
żyła pamięć Grakcha. I póty nie zaprzestano obrzędów
pogrzebowych, póki nie zostały zamknięte ukończeniem [budowy]
miasta. Niektórzy nazwali je Krakowem od
krakania kruków, które zleciały się tam do ścierwa potwora.
Tak wielka zaś miłość do zmarłego
władcy ogarnęła senat, możnych i cały lud, że
jedynej jego dzieweczce, której imię było Wanda powierzyli rządy po
ojcu. Ona tak dalece przewyższała wszystkich zarówno piękną
postacią, jak powabem wdzięków, że sądziłbyś,
iż natura obdarzając ją, nie hojna, lecz rozrzutna była.
Albowiem i najrozważniejsi z roztropnych zdumiewali się nad jej
radami, i najokrutniejsi spośród wrogów łagodnieli na jej widok.
Stąd, gdy pewien tyran lemański srożył się w zamiarze
zniszczenia tego ludu, usiłując zagarnąć tron niby wolny,
uległ raczej jakiemuś [jej] niesłychanemu urokowi niż
przemocy oręża. Skoro tylko bowiem wojsko jego ujrzało naprzeciw
królowę, nagle rażone zostało jakby jakimś promieniem
słońca: wszyscy jakoby na jakiś rozkaz bóstwa wyzbywszy się
wrogich uczuć odstąpili od walki; twierdzą, że
uchylają się od świętokradztwa, nie od walki; nie boją
się [mówili] człowieka, lecz czczą w człowieku nadludzki
majestat. Król ich, tknięty udręką miłości czy
oburzenia, czy obojgiem, rzecze:
„Wanda morzu,
Wanda ziemi,
obłokom niech Wanda rozkazuje,
bogom nieśmiertelnym za swoich
niech da się w ofierze ,,
a ja za was, o moi dostojnicy, uroczystą bogom podziemnym składam
ofiarę,
abyście tak wy, jak i wasi następcy w nieprzerwanym trwaniu starzeli się
pod niewieścimi rządami!"
Rzekł i na miecz dobyty rzuciwszy się ducha wyzionął,
Życie zaś gniewne między cienie uchodzi ze skargą.
Od niej, mówią, pochodzić ma nazwa
rzeki Wandal, ponieważ ona stanowiła środek jej królestwa;
stąd wszyscy, którzy podlegali jej władzy, nazwani zostali Wandalami.
Ponieważ nie chciała nikogo poślubić, a nawet dziewictwo
wyżej stawiała od małżeństwa, bez następcy
zeszła ze świata. I jeszcze długo po niej chwiało się
państwo bez króla. (...) wg Kroniki Polskiej Wincentego Kadłubka (ze
strony: http://www.literatura.zapis.net.pl/okresy/sredniowiecze.htm)
staropolskie - Wenda, legendarna
pierwsza władczyni Polski i córka Kraka, po raz pierwszy wymieniona w
Kronice polskiej Wincentego Kadłubka. Miała odeprzeć najazd
władcy Alemanów Rytogara, zabiegającego o jej rękę, a
następnie rzucić się do Wisły.
|
|
|
Do obrzędów, wtórnie powiązanych z
Wandą, należał krakowski zwyczaj puszczania wianków 23 czerwca,
za sprawą "Słowiańskiego kalendarza" (Tadeusza
Wojewódzkiego, 1827) spopularyzowany w XIX w. jako dzień Wandy , oraz
organizowane rejsy "promu Wandy", włączone do
obchodów świętojańskich 1885-95.
|
|
Legenda o Wandzie |
|
|
Wanda
stała się też obiektem zainteresowania autorów niemieckich,
francuskich i włoskich, tematem wielu oper i baletu; |
Legendarna władczyni Krakowa
|
Prawdopodobnie
postać wymyślona przez Wincentego Kadłubka Wg Kroniki
polskiej tegoż autora, Wanda po śmierci swego ojca Kraka
objęła rządy w Krakowie. Nie zgodziła się na
małżeństwo z pretendującym do tronu księciem
niemieckim. Odrzucony przez Wandę książę
popełnił samobójstwo, ona sama nigdy nie wyszła za
mąż i zmarła bezpotomnie. Wg Kroniki wielkopolskiej (ok.
1295), książę niemiecki popełnił samobójstwo, a
Wanda ofiarowała siebie bogom, topiąc się w Wiśle.
J. Długosz nadał księciu niemieckiemu imię Rytygier,
natomiast samobójstwo Wandy tłumaczył jej nienawiścią do
Niemców.Postać Wandy stała się tematem wielu utworów
literackich, opery A. Dvořáka Wanda,
Krak II - poprzednik Wandy |
Królewna Wanda
Krakus drzeworyt z Kroniki Macieja Miechowita |
Zasiadająca
na smoku
|
I stanął smok przed niewiastą... |
Posąg Heraklesa, Luwr, Paryż |
Okazuje się zatem,
że potęga bogini jest tak przytłaczająca, iż
walczący w jej imieniu wojownik płaci za możliwość
obcowania z nią najwyższą cenę. Podobny, acz nieco
różniący się od tego schematu mityczny wątek odnajdujemy w
legendzie o Wandzie władającej Wiślanami po bezpotomnej
śmierci swego brata, Lecha.
Ona tak dalece przewyższała wszystkich
zarówno piękną postacią, jak powabem wdzięków że
sądziłbyś, iż natura obdarzając ją, nie hojna,
lecz rozrzutna była – pisze o niej Wincenty Kadłubek.
- Albowiem i najrozważniejsi z roztropnych zdumiewali się jej
radami, i najokrutniejsi spośród wrogów łagodnieli na jej widok.
Stąd, gdy pewien tyran lemański ( tj. alemański, niemiecki;
Długosz podaje, że miał na imię Rytygier – uwaga J.W.S
) srożył się w zamiarze zniszczenia tego ludu,
usiłując zagarnąć tron niby wolny, uległ raczej
jakiemuś (jej) niesłychanemu urokowi, niż przemocy
oręża. Skoro tylko bowiem wojsko jego ujrzało naprzeciw
królową, nagle rażone zostało jakby jakimś promieniem
słonecznym; wszyscy jakoby na jakiś rozkaz bóstwa
wyzbywszy się wrogich uczuć (...). Król ich, tknięty
udręką miłości czy oburzenia, czy obojgiem rzecze: „Wanda
morzu, Wanda ziemi, obłokom niech Wanda rozkazuje, bogom
nieśmiertelnym za swoich niech da się w ofierze, a ja za was, o moi
dostojnicy, uroczystą bogom podziemnym składam ofiarę,
abyście tak wy, jak i wasi następcy w nieprzerwanym trwaniu starzeli
się pod niewieścimi rządami”. Rzekł i na miecz dobyty
rzuciwszy się, ducha wyzionął, życie zaś gniewne
między cienie uchodzi ze skargą
|
|
|
Historia
ta ma analogię w czeskiej legendzie o najmłodszej córce Kroka,
sławnej czarodziejce i wojowniczce Luboszy. Swoje miano wzięła
ona od słowa lubieznyj -
miły, powabny, piękny, wdzięczny, ale też lubieżny,
znajdujący rozkosz, pożądliwy, szukający seksualnej
przyjemności, co zdaje się wskazywać na jej mitologiczne
pokrewieństwo z nęcącą Rytygiera swoimi wdziękami
Wandą ( imię Wanda wywodzi się od słowiańskiego węda – nęcić,
chwytać w wyki, przyciągać ). Bohaterki te jednak dzieli
głęboka różnica. O ile bowiem Lubosza wyszła za
mąż za pochodzącego z gminu Przemysła oracza ( co
należy rozumieć jako obraz hierogamii uranicznej bogini i
chtonicznego boga ), Wanda z pogardą odrzuciła zaloty przybysza. Nic
dziwnego, ponieważ nie był to miłujący pokój oracz, lecz
nadciągający z krainy zachodzącego słońca ( Niemiec
) wojowniczy książę, czyli
podziemny ( słońce zachodząc kryje się pod ziemią )
bóg. Smok również był stworem chtonicznym. Pozwala to
domniemywać, że Rytygier i smok to de facto jedna i ta sama osoba.
Zważywszy, że ojciec Wandy, Krak ( w
innych wersjach krakowskiej legendy jej brat Krak młodszy
bądź jego bliźniak,
Lech ) pokonał już wawelskiego potwora, winniśmy
zatem widzieć w Rytygierze „smoka zmartwychwstałego”, który pokonany
przez smokobójcę (Kraka albo Lecha) odżywa w „zachodniej krainie”,
wraca i oczarowany świetlistą mocą bogini po raz wtóry umiera,
tym razem z własnej ręki. W opowieści tej skrywa się
tajemnica. Jaka? Ano taka, że „promotorką” i powodem zmagań
niebiańskiego herosa ze smokiem, a następnie
zwyciężczynią smoka jest bogini, u której stóp smok
dwakroć ginie, raz przeszyty włócznią ( gromem ), drugi raz –
zniewolony bijącą z jej lic
świętością.
Nie jestem pewien, ale to bodajże Aleksander Bruckner narzekał w
swej Mitologii
słowiańskiej i polskiej, że nie zachował
się chociażby jeden modlitewny tekst pogańskich kapłanów Słowian.
I popełnił błąd, znany jest on bowiem wielu historykom
studiującym kroniki Kadłubka i Długosza. Zapisał go i
wtłoczył w usta Rytygiera ten pierwszy, ten drugi nadał temu
tekstowi w swojej kronice bardziej kwiecistą formę, wszelako zabiegi
te w niczym nie naruszyły jego kultowej wymowy. Była to modlitwa
skierowana do dziewiczej bogini i będąca:
1/ aklamacją przyznającą Wandzie status bóstwa trzech sfer
wszechświata ( niebios, ziemskiego kręgu i podziemnych wód ); 2/
ofiarniczą formułą poprzedzającą złożenie
podwójnej żertwy symbolizującej samobójstwo przybywającego z
podziemia dzikiego herosa oraz „roztopienie się” rezydującej „na
wysokościach” heroiny w życiodajnych wodach Wisły, nie
przypadkowo zwanej „rzeką Wandalów”, czyli „rzeką Wandy”.
Jako smokobójczyni bogini dzieli zatem los
wszystkich smokobójców: zwyciężywszy smoka umiera, jednakże ta
śmierć jest pozorna. Ostatecznie to ona w każdej z tych historii
jest wodą i o jej uwolnienie i zapłodnienie tu wszak chodzi.
Jeżeli jednak pozostawimy na boku seksualną symbolikę tych
mitów, ujrzymy ich drugie dno. Rycerz i smok są dwiema stronami tego
samego medalu, którego spoiwem zawsze pozostaje bogini. W pierwszym akcie
niewinna dziewica, w drugim wojowniczka unifikuje ona w sobie cechy
żeńskie i męskie, „zawiadując” i smokiem i rycerzem. W tym
względzie stanowi ona jedną z wielu mitologicznych postaci Asura
Soratha, o którym piszę w swym artykule o SDU,
a który jawi się w dwóch postaciach – Arymana ( smoka ) i Lucyfera (
rycerza ). Mit uświadamia nam, iż Asur wiąże w sobie
pożądliwość męską i kobiecą, nadawszy jej
pozór boskiej świętości. Jej blask sprawia, że to w jego de
facto imieniu toczą „duchowe zmagania” z „szatanem” wszyscy lucyferyczni
bojownicy wiary. I zaślepieni bijącym z lic Asura zniewalającym
światłem sądzą, że zmagają się z realnym
wrogiem, podczas gdy tak naprawdę składają Sorathowi rytygierowski
hołd...
( fragment nieopublikowanej książki Święty krąg Polski, część
II, Wawel )http://ctud.blox.pl/html/1310721,262146,21.html?205444
Polskie
legendy:
O Wandzie, co Niemca nie chciała
|
Przez wiele lat Krakowem
rządził ukochany przez poddanych książę Krak.
Był mądrym i sprawiedliwym władcą, dlatego po jego
śmierci zapanowała wielka żałoba. Poddani z lękiem
patrzyli na swą przyszłość, bowiem książę
nie pozostawił po sobie męskiego potomka, tylko jedyną
córkę - Wandę. I to właśnie ona miała
objąć tron po ojcu. |
Przerażeni widmem najazdu krakowscy wielmożowie próbowali
namówić Wandę na małżeństwo. Jednak dumna
księżniczka stanowczo oświadczyła, że nie
poślubi Niemca i nie opuści swego kraju. W nocy, siedząc w
swej komnacie, znalazła sposób na uratowanie swych poddanych od
wojny. Otworzyła szeroko okno i przez chwilę patrzyła na
swój ukochany Kraków, pogrążony głęboko we
śnie. |
O
Wandzie legenda na podstawie legend Stanisława
Wyspiańskiego
|
Róże- Stanisław Wyspiański Karton do
polichromii w Kościele Franciszkanów w Krakowie 1895
Małwy Stanisław Wyspiański
Planty Stanisław Wyspiański |
|
|
|
wśród legendarnych postaci dziejow ojczyzny
była najpopularniejszą
Projekt witraża do okna katedry na Wawelu, [ok.
1900] .S. Wyspiańskiego
|
Mit o krolowej Krakowa - Wandzie
Grafika ze zbiorów Biblioteki
Narodowej w Warszawie.
|
|
|
było jej imię
Jeden z władców
Krakowa z rodu Kraków, wesoło pędził lata w kawalerskim stanie
ku zmartwieniu poddanych i dworu. Swaci i przyjeżdżające w
swaty poselstwa nie miały wstępu na zamek, a rozmowy o małżeństwie,
które często wszczynała przy stole rodzina, Krak ucinał
krótko: |
Ponownie zebrała się Rada na Wawelu, błagając
Wandę by oddała rękę. Wanda wysłuchała
spokojnie, po czym rzekła:
Śmierć Wandy – Aleksander Lesser
(1814-1884) |
Legenda o Wandzie
|
miała różne
wersje i w rozmaity sposób była przerabiana przez różnych twórców.
O córce Kraka odznaczającej się niezwykłą
pięknością dowiadujemy się z legend cyklu
krakowsko-wiślickiego, które przekazał Wincenty zw.
Kadłubkiem. Kronika wielkopolska z XIII w. podaje o pięknej
królewnie, że swoją urodą jak wędka — węda
łowiła serca rycerzy (ta węda z czasem miała
przekształcić się w Wandę). Smutek zawisł nad
Krakowem, kiedy okrutna śmierć zabrała dzielnego,
mądrego i powszechnie szanowanego władcę — Kraka.
Zebrała się wkrótce starszyzna, aby zastanowić się nad
przyszłością grodu. Król osierocił
księżniczkę Wandę i ona — zgodnie ze zwyczajem —
miała przejąć władzę po ojcu. Mimo obaw Wanda,
kilkunastoletnia dziewczyna, była godną następczynią
króla. Szybko zdobyła sobie serca poddanych, a wieść o jej
urodzie rozchodziła się we wszystkie strony. Dotarła również
do Niemiec, gdzie rządził młody książę Rytgier.
Poszukiwał on właśnie w tym czasie dla siebie żony.Gdy
dotarła do niego wiadomość z podwawelskiego grodu o
pięknej i mądrej Wandzie, postanowił pojąć ją
za żonę. Wysłał więc do odległego Krakowa
uzbrojonych, bogatych w dary posłów, aby prosili w jego imieniu o
rękę pięknej księżniczki. Gdyby zaś dać jej
nie chciała, mieli zgodę wymusić na niej groźbą
wojny. Kiedy już dotarli posłowie do wawelskiego grodu, zdumieli
się ogromnie, ujrzawszy okazałą, potężną
warownię. Zostali zaproszeni na wieczerzę. Oprócz bogactw, jakie
ujrzeli, najbardziej zdumieni byli urodą księżniczki. Kiedy
stanęła przed nimi, otoczona dworem, oniemieli na jej widok.
Posłowie złożyli jej pokłon i podali cel swojego
przybycia. Najstarszy z posłów złożył u jej stóp
szkatułę pełną kosztowności. Wanda nie
zgodziła się na małżeństwo z niemieckim księciem
Rytgierem. Posłowie zagrozili wypowiedzeniem wojny. Wszystkich
ogarnął smutek. Jedynie Wanda zdawała się być
beztroska jak zwykle. Widać jednak było, że dojrzewa w niej
jakiś wielki i bolesny zamysł. Nikt nie zauważył, jak
opuściła zamek. Nie chcąc zostać żoną niemieckiego
księcia rzuciła się w nurty wiślane. Czynem tym
zapobiegła wojnie polsko — niemieckiej[ Internet ] |
Mistrz Wincenty, zwany Kadłubkiem (ur. po 1150
lub ok. 1160 według tradycji we wsi Karwów koło Opatowa[1], zm. 8
marca 1223 w Jędrzejowie) – biskup krakowski (w l. 1208-1218),
związany z kancelarią księcia Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego. Autor
Kroniki polskiej, drugiego tego typu utworu w dziejach polskiej
historiografii. Od 1764 błogosławiony Kościoła
rzymskokatolickiego, patron diecezji sandomierskiej Figura bł.
Kadłubka, sanktuarium przy opactwie oo. cystersow, fot. Adam Golec /
Agencja Gazeta |
Krolewna Wanda
|
Krak według Walerego
Eljasz-Radzikowskiego |
opis: Obraz ilustruje jedną z
najpopularniejszych legend odnoszących się do przedhistorycznych
dziejów Polski. Ukazuje Wandę, córkę i następczynię
mitycznego króla Kraka, na chwilę przed skokiem w nurt Wisły.
Władczyni, ujęta na tle wawelskiego grodu, otoczona zrozpaczonymi
dwórkami, oddaje im królewskie szaty i klejnoty. Zapis na odwrocie: „Królowa
Wanda, pokonawszy swego napastnika Rytogara, stosownie do uczynionego
ślubu czyni z siebie ofiarę bogom, rzucając się w
Wisłę”, świadczy o tym, że autor dzieła wybrał wersję
podania przekazaną przez Jana Długosza w Kronikach sławnego
Królestwa Polskiego. Mit Wandy, który przetrwał w
świętojańskim obrzędzie puszczania wianków na Wiśle,
zyskał szczególne znaczenie w czasach rozbiorów. Pradziejowa królowa
była czczona niemal jak święta, a jej ofiara i „wiecznie
żywa” obecność w Wiśle, nadały legendzie charakter
założycielski i integracyjny, jednoczący naród podzielony
przez zaborców. Dzieło, stylistycznie pokrewne romantyzmowi
niemieckiemu, dramatyczne w wyrazie, monumentalizuje i heroizuje postać
Wandy. Wacława Milewska ekspozycja: Galeria Sztuki Polskiej XIX wieku w
Sukiennicach, Sukiennice, Rynek Główny 1/3
http://www.imnk.pl/gallerybox.php?dir=SU330&more=1 |
|
Królowa Matka
Królowa Żona
1866 r
www.kajani.pl/1866_Victoria.html |
Król |
Legendy
mowią, że
|
Wandy oblicze
"Krak walczący ze
smokiem", Franciszek Walczowski, |
była córką
założyciela miasta, księcia Kraka. Odrzuciwszy rękę
niemieckiego władcy, rzuciła się w fale Wisły, nie
chcąc narażać swoich poddanych na zemstę ze strony
rozczarowanego zalotnika. Kopiec nagrobny usypano w miejscu, gdzie z rzeki
wyłowiono jej ciało. Pierwsza wzmianka o kopcu pochodzi z XIII w.
Był wtedy zwany Mogiłą i stąd też nazwa wioski,
która leżała u jego podnóża. Dziś kopiec znajduje
się w Nowej Hucie, dzielnicy, która powstała dopiero po wojnie. Sąsiaduje
z wielkim kombinatem metalurgicznym. Jednak jest jednym z najstarszych
wciąż widocznych dowodów na działalność
człowieka w tej okolicy. Powstał prawdopodobnie w VII lub VIII
wieku Istnieje też hipoteza datująca go, podobnie jak kopiec
Krakusa, na czasy Celtów, czyli I wiek n.e. Prawdopodobnie kopiec
służył celom kultowym lub faktycznie stał się
czyimś grobem. Nie wiemy tego na pewno, gdyż nigdy nie poddano go
badaniom archeologicznym. I niech tak zostanie - po co niszczyć
legendę o Wandzie co nie chciała Niemcza ? |
Wanda, co nie
chciała Niemca
|
Wrogie siły, które
chcą nas poróżnić z bratnim od wieków narodem niemieckim,
rozpowszechniły legendę, według której córka Kraka, Wanda,
rzuciła się do Wisły, żeby tylko nie wyjść za
mąż za obywatela Niemiec Prawda historyczna jest zupełnie
inna. Uroda Wandy była tak wspaniała, że mężczyznom,
którzy patrzyli na nią, bardzo szybko odbierało dech w piersiach, a
chwilę potem, odejmowało mowę. W tamtych czasach, słowo
niemiec, oznaczało tego, kto nie mówi, a więc człowieka,
któremu odjęło mowę, a więc mogło oznaczać
każdego mężczyznę, który po prostu spojrzał na
Wandę. Nie jest prawdą, że księżniczka Wanda nie
chciała obywatela zaprzyjaźnionego kraju! Ponieważ Wanda
była pierwszą w Polsce feministką, po prostu nie chciała
chłopa! Miała po temu rozliczne powody. Jeden z jej braci był
znanym niszczycielem okolicznej fauny, który zasłynął zabiciem
ostatniego w okolicy smoka, a drugi brat zasłynął zabiciem
ostatniego w okolicy brata. Do tego, jeden z braci miał na imię
Lech! Do dzisiaj nie bardzo wiadomo, czy on zabił, czy to jego zabili,
ale pewne jest, że Lech brał bezpośredni udział w
morderstwie! Czy można się dziwić, że Wanda czuła
pewną niechęć do mężczyzn? Wzięła
więc sprawy królestwa w swoje ręce, przegnała brata
bratobójcę i sama stanęła na czele Królestwa, a więc i
armii. Jako Szefowa Sił Zbrojnych, musiała stoczyć kilka
bitew. Wszystkie były dla Wandy zwycięskie i wszystkie obyły
się bez strat własnych! Stało się tak, dzięki
zastosowaniu przez Wandę, nowej, bardzo nowatorskiej taktyki. Wanda,
jako kobieta, traktowała wiele spraw bardzo dosłownie.
Ponieważ stanęła na czele Sił Zbrojnych,
stanęła na ich czele, w sensie dosłownym. Wrogie armie
składały się wyłącznie z mężczyzn! Na
widok Wandy stojącej na czele swych wojsk, wszystkim wrogom
odbierało dech, mowę, siły, a w rezultacie wolę walki.
Strat nie było więc, również u przeciwników. Była
więc Wanda wynalazczynią pierwszego, w pełni ekologicznego
sposobu prowadzenia zwycięskich wojen! Jednym z jej przeciwników,
był Rytygier zwany Tranem Łemańskim, ów
niedoszły małżonek, z którego powodu, według legendy,
rzuciła się Wanda do Wisły. |
Witraż znajduje się, , w Gmachu
Głównym Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie, w Galerii Sztuki Polskiej XX wiek W rzeczywistości,
Wanda odesłała tyrana do domu razem z ubezwłasnowolnioną
armią i kazała mu, więcej nie pokazywać się
jej na oczy. Zrozpaczony Tyran Lemański wrócił ze swoją
armią do domu i założył tam Związek Wypędzonych.Rządy
Wandy były długie, szczęśliwe i owocne, ale jako
feministka, nie zostawiła potomstwa i Polska, na pojawienie się
prawdziwej dynastii w swojej historii, musiała czekać kilkaset lat,
do pojawienia się na scenie politycznej Mieszka .www.niegdysiejszy.salon24.pl/ |
Imię
tylko żeńskie
|
Libusza, Lubosza (czes. Libuše) – według kroniki
Kosmasa, legendarna władczyni Czech, najmłodsza córka Kroka,
założycielka Pragi
|
Hipoteza
mówi, że imię to powstało od nazwy plemienia Wandalów,
lub wodza Chorwatów -Avandzy - wzmiankowanego przez X-wiecznego arabskiego
kronikarza Al-Masudiego. |
–legendarna
księżniczka (Wąda)
|
–
bohaterka polskiej legendy. Według
najbardziej znanej wersji Wanda, córka Kraka i polska księżniczka, nie
zgodziła się na małżeństwo z księciem niemieckim.
Urażony książę najechał ze swoimi wojskami ziemie
polskie. Armia pod dowództwem Wandy zdołała odeprzeć atak.
Wanda jednak zdecydowała się na samobójstwo, rzucając się
w nurt Wisły, aby
nie prowokować kolejnych napaści (według innej wersji
była to ofiara za odniesione zwycięstwo). |
Jan Długosz herbu Wieniawa
(łac. Ioannes Dlugossius, Longinus; ur. 1 grudnia 1415 w Brzeźnicy,
zm. 19 maja 1480 w Krakowie) – kronikarz, polski historyk, twórca jednego z
najwybitniejszych dzieł średniowiecznej historiografii
europejskiej, duchowny, geograf, dyplomata; wychowawca synów Kazimierza
Jagiellończyka.
Jan Długosz w swojej pracowni
|
Imię
patriotyczne
|
Macierzyństwo Stanisław Wyspiański
Madonna, 1909, Galeria Obrazów, Lwów
Hofman Vlastimil (1881-1970), malarz narodowości
czeskiej, uczeń J. Stanisławskiego, J. Malczewskiego, L.
Wyczółkowskiego w Krakowie i Gérome'a w Paryżu |
|
Imię
księżniczki corki Kraka
|
Wanda |
"Roczniki, czyli kroniki sławnego Królestwa
Polskiego" Jan Długosz. Wydanie z roku 1615.
Fresk przedstawiający Jana Długosza z
końca XV w Jego domu w Wiślicy |
Wanda
przypomina nazwę plemienia Wandalow
|
Personifikacja Europy z 1570 roku. Między
Wisłą a Odrą, Germanią a Polonią nad wybrzeżem
Bałtyku autor umieścił "Vandalię".
Z Plemienia Wandalów - wojownik |
Imię Wanda, |
Od jej imienia
Wisłę nazwano Wandalusem, a Polakow... Wandalami.
|
Widok na Wisłę Jan
Nepomucen Głowacki
Z plemienia Wandałow - rycerz |
J. Długosz w swojej
"Kronice" uważa, że imię Wanda to
znaczy tyle, co "wędka", gdyż dziewica była tak
powabna, że urodą swoją jakby na wędkę ludzi
imała". Co ciekawe, zdaniem Długosza, od jej imienia
Wisłę nazwano Wandalusem, a Polaków... Wandalami. Swoją
drogą, Wanda rzeczywiście ma jakiś związek z wandalami,
tyle że dzisiejszymi, którzy co jakiś czas burzą wzniesiony
tam w XIX w. pomniczek, a jego cokół pokrywają niewybrednymi
napisami. Wokół kopców zakładano cmentarze, tak samo jak
później, w średniowieczu, robiono to wokół
kościołów. |
* przypisuje się Wandzie jeszcze inne pochodzenie *
Opracowania
Bartłomieja Paprockiego "Gniazdo Cnoty”, Herby Rycerstwa Polskiego
swój początek mają". Kraków: Druk. Andrzeja Piotrkowskiego,
1578.
|
"Piast i Rzepicha".
http://fotopoznan.blogspot.comCzeslaw Woźniak -
|
Piast i Rzepicha |
Najstarsze, znane zapisy sięgają
dziadków legendarnej Wandy -
bliżej nieokreślonego Gaeckiego księcia i siostry Lecha I Połowca.
Ich synem był Vichimir,
znany jako bratanek wspomnianego Lecha I.
Ten oto Vichimir jest ojcem Wandy.
Pokrewieństwo to jest podkreślone w jej pełnym nazwisku, które
brzmi Vanda Vichimirsdotter.
Wanda, podtrzymując bliskie relacje z Longobardami,
(prawdopodobnie) poślubia Rytygiera z Gaety.
Owocem tego związku jest nie kto inny, a Rzepicha Rithogarsdotter -
żona samego Piasta
Kołodzieja.
[drzewa genealogicznego Wandy Rodovid.
]
Możnowładzwo
polskie
Legendarni protoplaści pierwszej polskiej dynastii
panującej.
|
Lech |
|
Piast – symbol wszystkiego co rodzime, swojskie i bezpieczne.
Najciekawsze jest to, że czcimy kogoś, o którym prawie nic nie wiemy,
ba nawet nie jesteśmy pewni czy w ogóle istniał! Ale to nie tylko
nasza polska specyfika...Im więcej o nim „wiemy”, tym więcej
pytań się nasuwa. A komu zawdzięczamy kronikarski przekaz o
kmieciu Piaście? Anonimowi zwanemu Gallem – wszystko jasne i
przejrzyste...:)
[cytat]"Bo chłop ma coś w sobie z Piasta,
chłop potęgą jest i basta"
[autor]Stanisław Wyspiański[/autor][/cytat]
Ale na razie przed wypłynięciem na ocean domysłów, hipotez,
opinii itp., przedstawię „pewne” informacje spod pióra pierwszego
kronikarza państwa (o dziwo) piastowskiego :).
Wg Galla Anonima Piast Kołodziej (znany również jako Piast Oracz)
był prapradziadkiem pierwszego historycznego władcy polskiego. Anonim
podaje, że ojcem Piasta był niejaki Chościsko, żoną
Rzepicha, a męskim potomkiem Siemowit. Piast mieszkał ze swoją rodzinką
w ubogiej chałupce na gnieźnieńskim podgrodziu.
*
Według innych legend sam Piast pochodził ze wsi Noć
(powiat koniński- gmina Wierzbinek). Świetlana
przyszłość syna Piasta została przepowiedziana przez dwóch
nieznanych wędrowców, którzy będąc zmęczeni i głodni
poprosili Piasta o gościnę. Akurat odbywała się w domu
kołodzieja uroczystość postrzyżyn 7-letniego syna. Piast
chętnie zaprosił nieznajomych do stołu i poprosił ich o
błogosławieństwo i nadanie imienia chłopcu. Dwaj
wędrowcy nadali mu imię Siemowit i przepowiedzieli mu wielką
przyszłość. Dziękując za gościnę
pobłogosławi jeszcze raz chłopca i wszystkich biesiadników, po
czym odeszli w dalsza wędrówkę. Rzepicha- żona gospodarza, gdy
poszła do spiżarni spostrzegła, że zapasów nie ubywa.
Wszyscy uznali to za dobrą wróżbę
*
W niedalekiej przyszłości Siemowit, objął władzę
w państwie po okrutnym księciu Popielu, którego zjadły myszy.
Potomkowie Siemowita rządzili (z przerwą) państwem polskim do
śmierci Kazimierza Wielkiego - 5 listopada 1370r.
Anonimowe rozmyślania...Ciekawe,
że sam autor „Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum” nie jest
zbyt wylewny, gdyż pisze: „Lecz dajmy pokój rozpamiętywaniu dziejów
ludzi, których wspomnienie zaginęło w niepamięci wieków i
których skaziły błędy bałwochwalstwa, a wspomniawszy ich
tylko pokrótce, przejdźmy do głoszenia spraw, które utrwaliła
wierna pamięć”. Czyżby wiedział coś jeszcze, a
specjalnie nie dopisał?
*
Są według mnie trzy możliwości:
1. Faktem jest, że w chwili pisania „Kroniki...” nie był wstanie
odnaleźć naocznych świadków tamtych wydarzeń.
Opierając się na niepewnych informacjach (często zapewne
sprzecznych) nie był w stanie odkryć tej jednej jedynej... prawdy-
rzecz jasna:) Spisał więc te najistotniejsze elementy
będące zarazem najmniej kontrowersyjnymi. Dodatkowo sam
przyznał, iż nie jest pewny prawdziwości tego przekazu.
*
2. Gall znał ciemną stronę historii rodu i jego dojścia do
władzy. Nie mógł otwarcie jej przedstawić- gdyż był na
garnuszku u księcia piastowskiego. Kronikarz wielokrotnie wskazywał,
byśmy czytali go „między wierszami”- i tym razem chciał
„głośno milczeć”. Specjalnie więc owinął podanie
o genezie Piastów w magiczną legendę, od której się widocznie
dystansował. Oczywiście, nie wszystko musi być bajką,
bohaterowie mogą być autentyczni, lecz niektóre wydarzenia mogą
być „troszkę” podretuszowane. W ten sposób Gall mógł
zachować głowę, jak i czystość sumienia, gdyż o
swoim przekręceniu poinformował w sposób delikatny czytelnika.
*
3. Anonim nie chciał chwalić pogańskich przodków Mieszka. Z
racji kronikarskiego obowiązku wspomniał o nich tylko pokrótce, a
wszystkie zasługi na rzecz budowy państwa polskiego składa na
rzecz Mieszka i jego potomnych.
Piast jako...Neantyka
historyczna przedstawiła kilka hipotez dotyczących Piasta. Pierwsza
głosi, iż cztery pokolenia przed Mieszkiem istniał na dworze
Popielidów urząd opiekuna dworu- popularnie zwanego Piastunem. Dygnitarz
ów (zgodnie z ówczesnymi normami) korzystając ze słabości swego
pana i łaskawcy, pozbawił go tronu i „wyeliminował” cały
jego ród. Wczesnosłowiański zamach stanu był przeniesieniem na
rodzime podwórko genealogii Karola Wielkiego. Zbiegiem lat Piastun stał
się Piastem z legendy, a jego pochodzenie miało sugerować o
prawowitym charakterze ich rządów. Z tej koncepcji wynika, że
przodkiem Piastów był nie Piast, a ktoś zupełnie inny, lecz
również zwany Piastem, jest to wiec podgląd o częściowym
nieistnieniu Piasta.Druga wersja głosi, iż imiona „Piast” i
„Rzepicha” oznaczają dawne bóstwa pogańskie. W wyniku wkroczenia
religii chrześcijańskiej, tradycja boska wtopiła się w
tradycję dynastyczną. Tak jak faraonowie byli potomkami boga Re, tak
książęta polscy potomkami boga Piasta:Piast, drzeworyt z kroniki
Macieja z Miechowa
Kolejną hipotezą jest obraz Piasta- Lechity (teoria mi najbliższa).
Ojciec Piasta zwał się Chościsko. Co ciekawe również,
zły Popiel został nazwany Chościskiem. Termin ten oznaczał
prawdopodobnie księcia. Może więc w żyłach Piasta
płynęła książęca krew? Możliwe...
Przypuśćmy, że w VIII w. na teren dzisiejszej Wielkopolski
przybywa migrujące plemię pod przywództwem chościska (czyli
księcia) Lecha. Plemię to zakłada swoje państewko ze
stolica w Gniezdnie (później przemianowana na Gniezno). Lechici mają
na północnym- wschodzie za sąsiadów bogatych i silnych Goplan, których
jednak na razie nie obchodzą „nowi” sąsiedzi. Na podstawie roczników
karolińskich można określić, że w 805r.Lech (?)
wyprawia się z pomocą do Czechów, którzy za napaść na
Awarów zostali zaatakowani przez wojska cesarza Franków Karola Wielkiego. W
nieudanej wyprawie ginie Lech, nie pozostawiając dojrzałego
dziedzica. Sytuację wykorzystują Goplani, którzy podbijają
młode, ale już prężnie funkcjonujące państwo
Polan. Rozpoczyna się okres niewoli, w której byli członkowie rodziny
panującej i „arystokracja” stają się zwykłymi
chłopami. Dlatego właśnie w poł. IX w. Geograf Bawarski
wymienia Goplan, a nie Polan. Jednakże, Polanie zachowują swoją
tradycję i tożsamość, a kiedy na chościskowym tronie
zasiada Popiel, dochodzi do buntu. Popiel zostaje zabity, a syn jednego z
przywódców powstania- Piasta, Siemowit z racji płynącej w jego
żyłach krwi Lecha zostaje wybrany na władcę.
Kariera Piasta.
Moda na Piasta rozpoczęła się dopiero kilkaset lat po jego
rzekomej śmierci. Już wówczas Piast był różnorako
interpretowany. W okresie Złotego Wieku, gdy szlachta walczyła o
dominującą pozycje w kraju, stworzono zadziwiającą
koncepcję jej pochodzenia. Z jednej strony podkreślała swą
odrębność od innych klas społecznych, a z drugiej
starała się odkreślić swoja rodzimość i swojskość.
W dobie królów elekcyjnych szlachta zaczęła się domagać
„króla- Piasta”- rozumianego jako najlepszego kandydata z jej własnego
grona. Co ciekawe „Piastem” można było zostać również przez
małżeństwo. Nazwa średniowiecznej dynastii panującej
jako „piastowska” była wytworem erudytów śląskich z
przełomu XVII i XVIII w. Upowszechnił je później Adam
Naruszewicz, wzbogacając karty ojczystej historii Polaków ku pokrze¬pieniu
serc. W niewiele lat później na plan pierwszy wysunęło się
chłopskie pocho¬dzenie pierwszego polskiego rodu panującego. Był
to zarówno przejaw kompleksu winy wobec stanu włościańskiego,
jak i próba rozbudzenia w nim poczucia tożsamości naro¬dowej i
historycznej. Postać "kmiotka na książęcym
stolcu" była nośnym symbolem, propagowanym wręcz
natrętnie już na elementarnym poziomie edukacji. Skutki
przero¬sły najśmielsze oczekiwania. Chłopstwo rzeczywiście
zaczęło się utożsamiać z synem Chościska, co
nasiliło się zwłaszcza pod koniec XIX wieku za sprawą
agraryzmu, doktryny głoszącej, że stan kmiecy jest jedyną
zdrową i twórczą częścią narodu i tylko on
zasługuje na miano "ludu". Imię "Piast"
trafiło zatem na zielone sztandary najpotężniejszych partii
ludowych. Pod jego patronatem tworzono kolejne wersje programów "Polski
Ludowej" - czyli chłopskiej, tak bowiem rozumiano wtedy ten termin.
Jeden nawet doczekał się realizacji... W literaturze pojawia się
w Starej baśni Józefa Ignacego Kraszewskiego. Jest też bohaterem
wiersza Kornela Makuszyńskiego Za króla Piasta Polska wyrasta. Piast (jako
Dago-Piastun) jest głównym bohaterem luźno opartej na faktach
historycznych powieści dla dorosłych Zbigniewa Nienackiego Dagome
Ludex (lub w innym wyddaniu Historia Sekretna) przedstawiający życie
Piasta, podboje oraz zjednoczenie krain ówczesnych plemion.
Z biegiem czasu pojęcia "Piast", "piastowski"
nabrały zabarwienia ogólnonarodowe¬go. Śpiewamy przecież w
nieoficjalnym hymnie narodowym, Rocie: "Polski my naród, polski lud,
królewski szczep piastowy".
Zbitka pojęciowa doprawdy zdumiewająca :) Zauważmy, że Piast
wyrósł już na króla i jako taki stał się protoplastą
nie tylko dynastii panującej czy nawet stanu kmiecego, ale całego
narodu. W świadomości społecznej termin "Piast"
zakorzenił się na dobre w stuleciu XX, stając się symbolem
polskości na równi z Orłem Białym i Mazurkiem
Dąbrowskie¬go. W czasach PRL był najbardziej ulubioną
maskotką władzy wszelkiego szczebla. Imieniem "Piast"
chrzczono, co popadło: okręty i statki, huty i kopalnie, kluby
sportowe, spółdzielnie pracy, szkoły i równego rodzaju towarzystwa.
Polska była w piastowskich granicach, bronionych przez Wojsko Ludowe z
„piastowskimi” orzełkami na czapkach.
W nowej rzeczywistości Piast również znalazł swoje miejsce jako
symbol polskości.
Podsumowanie Piast
jest wręcz "zakodowany" w naszej polskiej świadomości.
Możemy go uważać za historycznego, czy legendarnego
protoplastę pierwszej polskiej dynastii panującej. Każdy naród
ma swojego „ojca”. W roli „Ojca” Polan widzę Lecha, ale w roli „Ojca”
narodu polskiego najodpowiedniejszą osobą wydaje mi się
właśnie Piast Kołodziej. Jest fenomenem społeczno-
historycznym, działa na wyobraźnie profesjonalnych badaczy i
zwykłych śmiertelników. Z pewnością wokół jego osoby
będą krążyć kontrowersje (to nieuniknione), ale to i
tak nie zmienia faktu, że wśród Polaków jego osoba zawszę
będzie dziwnie bliska i swojska.
Wierzmy jednak w legendy!- przecież i tak muszą zawierać ziarnko
prawdy:) http://www.konflikty.pl/a,617,Sredniowiecze,Piast_-_zywa_legenda.html
BibliografiaSzwarc, M. Urbański, P. Wieczorkiewicz „100 postaci, które
tworzyły historię Polski”
Łowmiański H., Dynastia Piastów we wczesnym średniowieczu, [w:]
Początki Państwa Polskiego, t. 1, Poznań 1962.
Łowmiański
H., Początki Polski, t. 5, Warszawa 1973.
|
Piast Kołodziej z rodziną- Franciszek
Walczowski [www.panoramio.com] |
Piast Kołodziej- Elekcja Piasta na księcia
według Antoniego Oleszczyńskiego |
Piast Kołodziej -Pomnik przed starostwem
Powiatowym w Złotowie www.panoramio.com/photo/25825068 |
Opowiadania ilustrowane
o Wandzie
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
„Wanda leży w naszej ziemi”
|
Już na Boże Narodzenie, Miłe dzieci, w
zeszłym roku Wszystko wam opowiedziałem O wawelskim strasznym
smoku. |
„A co dalej? a co dalej?”
Mnóstwo dzieci głośno woła. Zaraz wszystko wam opowiem, Tylko
siądźcie dookoła. |
Pamiętacie króla Kraka, Co był
głośny z sławnych czynów? Miał on córkę:
śliczną Wandę, I dwóch miał dorodnych synów. |
Pamiętacie króla Kraka, Co był głośny
z sławnych czynów? Miał on córkę: śliczną
Wandę, I dwóch miał dorodnych synów. |
|
Wtem z Wawelu wieśċ przylała Jakby
głos czarnego ptaka: „O, nieszczęście, o,
nieszczęście! Nie masz, nie masz króla Kraka!” |
Już na wieki zamknął oczy, I już
słowa nie wypowie. Płacze po nim córka Wanda, Płaczą po
nim dwaj synowie |
Kto żyw, ziemię w rękach nosił,
Czy kobieta, mąż, czy chłopiec, I nad grobem króla Kraka
Wielki usypali kopiec. |
Męże starzy i czcigodni Ogłaszają
wnet orędzie, Że najstarszy syn królewski Królem na Wawelu
będzie! |
|
Siadł król nowy w swej świetlicy, W
śnieżnobiałej siadł sukmanie, I tak rzecze: – „Dobrym
królem Będę dla was, Krakowianie!” |
Cieszy się królewna Wanda, I
szczęśliwa w głos się śmieje, Lecz brat młodszy
chmurnie patrzy Jak wilk, kiedy mknie przez knieje |
„Co ci jest, mój bracie miły?” Tak mu nowy król
powiada. „Czemu mroczą się twe oczy, Czemu twarz twa taka blada?” |
A ten młodszy brał ponury W takie
słowa mu odpowie: „Nie chcę, abyś ty panował, Ja mam
królem byċ w Krakowie!” |
|
Gniew jak płomień go ogarnął I
wąż serce mu oplata, Chwycił miecz i –
nieszczęśliwy! Własną ręką zabił
brała. |
Skoro pojął, co uczynił,
Przelękniony, przerażony, Dopadł konia i ucieka W straszne i
nieznane strony. |
|
|
Księżniczka Wanda - krolową Krakowa
Częśċ druga —
|
Biegną ludzie z wszystkich domów, Rojni jakby
pszczoły z ula, I wołają: – „Biada, biada! Nie ma króla, nie
ma króla!” |
Lecz niewiasty, co się zbiegły Tłumnie
do wawelskiej bramy, Zawołały: – „Nie ma króla, Lecz królewnę
przecie mamy!” |
I już biegną, i szukają, Kędy
Wanda się ukryła. A krzyk wielki się rozlega: „Panuj nam,
królewno miła!” |
Wanda, jak kwiatuszek biała, Słucha, patrzy
w wielkiej trwodze. Jasne łzy jej z oczów płyną, Bo któż
pomóc ma niebodze? |
|
|
Mówi, jakby ptaszek śpiewał: „O,
nieszczęsna ja sierota! Jakżesz mi to byċ królową, Co
koronę ma ze złota?” |
„Mnie przystoi z kwiatów wianek, Lub z zielonych
liści drzewa, Bom dziewczynka bardzo cicha, Co z ptaszkami pieśni
śpiewa!” |
Wtem złocista słońca smuga Na
dziewczęce padła skronie I tak na jej głowie błyska,
Że wygląda jak w koronie. |
„Cudy, cudy!” – słychaċ wkoło Wielkie
i radosne głosy: „Już królową jesteś naszą, Tak chce
słońce i niebiosy!” |
|
|
Ptaki szybko poleciały Z przeradosną
tą nowiną, By zaś morzu ją ogłosiċ, Fale
Wisły szybko płyną. |
Las obwieścił ją lasowi, Wiatry dolne
górnym wiatrom, Potem chmury ją poniosły Aż ku niebotycznym
Tatrom. |
Wiedzą o niej w całej ziemi, Wiedzą
blisko i daleko, A królewnę Wandę niesie Koń tak biały,
jakby mleko. |
Jedzie poprzez Kraków śliczny Wanda nasza
ukochana. A po drodze wszyscy ludzie Padli przed nią na kolana. |
Nawet dziki zwierz z puszczy radował się z krolowej
Wandy
Część Trzecia
|
Potem rzecz się dziwna stała: Na wawelskim
częstokole W noc miesięczną stały straże Pilnie
patrząc w las i pole. |
Kraków wieńcem otaczały Srogie puszcze,
gęste knieje, Cicho było w nich i mroczno, Lecz coś dzisiaj
łam się dzieje! |
0 północy wyszedł z lasów Wielki tłum
dzikiego zwierza, I wzdłuż Wisły uroczyście Na wawelskie
wzgórze zmierza. |
Czarne dziki, żubry, tury, Wilki. lisy, a na
przedzie Jako puszczy senatorzy Przeogromne szły niedźwiedzie. |
|
|
W ślad za nimi gawiedźdrobna, Zwierz
malutki, leśne brzdące: Liszki, kuny i łasice, I wiewiórki, i
zające. |
Przystanęły u stóp wzgórza, A gdy
niedźwiedźdał im hasło, Wtedy rykiem, piskiem, wyciem,
Sto zwierzaków głośno wrzasło. |
Bieży Wanda, obudzona, I tak woła
uśmiechnięta: „Ucieszyłyście me serce, Dzięki,
dzięki wam, zwierzęta!” |
A najstarszy wśród niedźwiedzi Tak się
wzruszył jej widokiem, Że odtańczył taniec puszczy Wielce
uroczystym krokiem |
|
|
Tak zaczęła panowanie Wanda śliczna i
radosna, Gdy nad całą polską ziemią Nowa
rozkwitnęła wiosna. |
Nie ma głodu w polskiej ziemi, Nikt nie
żali się, nie płacze, Każdy Wandę
błogosławi: I bartnicy, i oracze. |
Nikt nikomu krzywd nie czyni, Bo królewna pilnie
strzeże, By wśród polskich ludzi była Święta zgoda i
przymierze. |
|
Smutno, smutno Wandzie na te
swoje zaręczyny..
Częśċ
czwarta --
|
Lecz w Krakowie nad czymś radzą,
Jakieś sobie szepcą troski, Czymś się martwią zacni
rajcy, Czymś się martwi wójt krakowski. |
Radzą, radzą, aże wreszcie Uradzili po
dniach wielu: „Znajdźmy męża dla królewny, Smutno samej na
Wawelu!!” |
Gdy jej o tym powiedzieli, Łzy nabiegły w
jej oczęta, Bo niewinne jej serduszko Wciąż pamięta,
wciąż pamięta… |
O, najmilsza ty Wandeczko! Wszak niedawno, bo przed
rokiem, Był tu syn morskiego króla, Co ze strasznym walczył
smokiem. |
Kiedy ptaki go uniosły, Rzucił piórka dwa
łabędzie, Jakby jej powiedzieċ pragnął, Że
pamiętaċ zawsze będzie |
|
|
.Zwał się książę ów:
Bursztynek, I znów teraz jej się roi, Śliczny jakby malowanie,
Złotowłosy, w srebrnej zbroi. |
Więc pobiegła nad brzeg Wisły, Kwietny
wianek zdjęła z czoła, A gdy go na fale rzuca, Tak cieniutkim
głosem woła: |
„Płyń z Wisełką, o wianeczku,
Płyń na morze po me szczęście, I opowiedz Bursztynkowi,
Że mnie oddaċ chcą w zamęście!” |
Już wianuszek fala wzięła I do morza
prędko zmierza, Ale straszna się przygoda Stała koło
Sandomierza. |
|
|
|
W ciemnej mieszkał tam pieczarze Stary Wodnik,
co swe cielsko Wciąż rybami karmił chętnie, Lecz gdy nie
miał ryb, jadł zielsko. |
Bardzo głodny był, gdy nagle Ujrzał
wianek w jasne rano, Więc go chwycił i czym prędzej Tak
pożera jak koń siano. |
Myśli o tym Wanda biedna, Że jej list
poniosła rzeka, I serduszko swe ucisza I wciąż czeka, i
wciąż czeka. |
A tymczasem w całym świecie Szepcą
króle i rycerze: „Niech mnie ujrzy Wanda śliczna I na męża
mnie wybierze!" |
Przeto z wszystkich ziemi krańców Jadą
króle i książęta, I rycerze w złotych zbrojach, I
paziowie, i panięta. |
Przyjeżdżają wciąż następni,
Część piąta
|
Dnia jednego do Krakowa Przybył orszak z
wielkiej dali, A w Krakowie krzyk się podniósł: „Czarni ludzie
przyjechali!” |
Mieli twarze jakby na nich Rozmazali czarnośċ
farby, A przybyli na zwierzętach, Co na plecach miały garby. |
Jeden z czarnych, cały w złocie, Co
koronę miał na głowie, Padł przed Wandą na kolana I
coś gadał w swojej mowie. |
Nikł nie wiedział, o co prosi, Gdy
przyklęknął na kobiercu, Ale Wanda wnet pojęła, Bo
położył dłoń na sercu. |
|
|
Dary przed nią kładł bogate,
Złotem sypał i perłami, A co słowo rzekł – to
wzdychał I zawracał wciąż oczami. |
Wanda smutno nań spojrzała Główką
kręcąc przelęknioną, Jakby mu powiedzieċ
chciała, Że nie będzie jego żoną. |
Krzyknął czarny król boleśnie,
Porażony owym znakiem, Garbatego dosiadł zwierza, I
popędził z swym orszakiem. |
A gdy księżyc się odmienił, Znów
wieśċ bieży po Krakowie, Że ze stron dalekich jedzie
Zalotników całe mrowie. |
|
|
Najpierw przybył książę
świetny Z hindostańskiej aż krainy, Strój jak tęczę
miał, a na nim I diamenty, i rubiny. |
Na straszliwym czarnym zwierzu Wjechał do
polskiego grodu, A zwierz miał aż dwa ogony, Krótszy z tyłu,
dłuższy z przodu. |
Gdy ten książę Wandę zoczył,
Co siedziała zatroskana, Głośno krzyknął, a zwierz
straszny Upadł przed nią na kolana. |
Wtedy pan z zamorskiej ziemi Zszedł z potwora i,
wzruszony, Przed prześliczną tą panienką Wybił
siedemkroċ pokłony. |
|
Dziwne ptaki dał jej w darze A gdy ogon ptak
roztoczy, Wtedy na nim barwy płoną I tęczowe lśnią
się oczy. |
Długo mówił ów mąż strojny, Jakby
chciał poruszyċ głazy, A gdy zmęczył się – na
nowo Bił pokłony siedem razy. |
A królewna patrzy smutno I cichutko znak mu daje,
Że za męża go nie weźmie, Więc niech w obce wraca
kraje |
Krzyknął książę
boleściwie, Jakby wolał: – „Biada, biada!” I łzy roniąc
bezustannie Na potwora swego wsiada. |
|
W dal pojechał poprzez puszcze, Ze swym smutkiem
i żałobą, Ale ptaki pozostały, Bo zapomniał
wziąċ je z sobą. |
Odtąd zawsze w pawie pióra Stroją czapki
krakowiacy I śpiewają na świat cały: „Albośmy to
jacy–tacy!” |
…Wciąż następni jadą ..., całe mrowie…
Częśċ
szosta —
|
Ale to nie koniec jeszcze! Bo do
wawelskiego grodu Przybył w blaskach i bogactwach Książę
z Dalekiego Wschodu |
Taki żółty jak bursztyny, Jakby w dymie
uwędzony, Długi warkocz miał u głowy I czapeczkę
miast korony. |
To zaś było najśmieszniejsze, Że
przedziwne miał paznokcie, Lśniące, farbą malowane,
Długie chyba na dwa łokcie. |
I on odszedł, boleściwy, Skrywszy się
w złoconej budzie, Którą szybko na ramionach W dal ponieśli
żółci ludzie |
|
|
Przybył syn perskiego króla, Nie na koniu, nie w
rydwanie, Ale w czarodziejski sposób, Na lecącym w świat dywanie. |
Wnet arabski król się zjawił Z wojowników
dzielnych zgrają, Na rumaku, co giął szyję, Jak
łabędzie ją zginają |
Skośnooki chan tatarski, Nadaremno szukał
chwały, Potem zgrzytał tak, że z zębów Iskry rojem
poleciały. |
Przybył potem król nieznany, Niezmiernego
pełen blasku, I przed Wandą berłem złotym Serce
wyrysował w piasku. |
|
|
Tak ze wszystkich krańców świata Zalotnicy
przybieżali: Świetni, strojni i potężni, Czarni,
żółci albo biali. |
Lecz żadnego Wanda nie chce! Wciąż
Bursztynka przypomina, I łzy roniąc szepce cicho: „Biedna, biedna
ja dziewczyna!” |
„O, mateńko!” – tak się żali – „Czemu
nie ma cię na świecie? Dobrą byś mi dala radę,
Utuliłabyś swe dziecię!” |
Przyszli ku niej polscy woje, Wielkie widząc jej
nieszczęście, I tak rzekli: – „O, królewno! Czemu nie chcesz
pójśċ w zamęście?” |
|
„Wielu było tu już królów, Jeszcze
więcej ich tu stanie, Ty zaś wskazaċ racz jednego – Niechaj
mężem twym zostanie!” |
Wtedy Wanda tak im rzecze: „To wam mówi córka Kraka:
Jeśli muszę pójśċ w zamęście, Pójdę tylko
za Polaka!” |
„To mój zamiar jest
niezłomny! Choċ tu królów było wielu – Polak tylko jasnooki
Będzie mieszkał na Wawelu!” |
„Nie masz książąt między nami!”
Zawołali w głos rycerze. Na to Wanda mówi cicho: „To mnie raczej
śmierċ zabierze!” |
Przybycie Rytygiera, co niośł śmierċ i
zniszczenie
Częśċ siodma —
|
Ledwie słowa te wyrzekła, Słychaċ
głosy pełne trwogi, Potem u wawelskiej bramy Straże
zatrąbiły w rogi. |
Patrzą: na wawelskim stoku Konny jakiś
rycerz słoi, Wzrok ma groźny, rudą brodę, Cały w
czarnej skryły zbroi. |
W róg zatrąbił, potem woła Tak
słowami donośnymi: „Jam jest Rytygier potężny, Co z
teutońskiej przybył ziemi!” |
„Otwierajcie mi wrzeciądze, A wy
pośpieszajcie, straże, Bo w gniew wpadnę, niecierpliwy, Ja tak
chcę i ja tak każę!” |
|
|
„Czego żądasz, o, rycerzu?” Głosy
mówią zatrwożone. „Chcę królewny waszej Wandy, Aby pojąċ
ją za żonę”. |
Słyszy Wanda straszne słowa, Więc
wychodzi wnet z alkierza, Uciszyła swe serduszko I tak mówi do rycerza: |
„Cudzoziemcze w czarnej zbroi! Wiedz, że mnie
przysięga wiąże, Nigdy mężem mym nie będzie
Obcy król ni obcy książę!” |
„Tedy biada twojej głowie!” Niemiec
krzyknął w głos zuchwale. „Jeśli żoną mą
nie będziesz, Wielkim ogniem Kraków spalę!” |
|
|
„Mieczem twe zwojuję ziemie, Zniszczę
polskie wsie spokojne, Ino wojska me przywiodę, By ci straszną wydaċ
wojnę”. |
„Nie poruszą mnie łzy twoje, Ni
westchnienia, ni boleści, Ja tu po odpowiedźwrócę, Skoro minie
dni czterdzieści”. |
Już odjechał na rumaku, A królewna
złotowłosa W wielkiej męce łzy wciąż roni,
Czyste jak poranna rosa. |
Dni tak płyną jakby woda, Jak na Wiśle
fala chyża, A ten straszny dzień czterdziesty Coraz bardziej
się przybliża. |
|
Bieży goniec i tak woła: „Wielka na nas
idzie siła. Rytygier już wojska zbiera, Ratuj nas, królewno
miła!” |
Bieży drugi i tak woła: „Zbierzcie
się, Polacy, razem, Pójdźmy walczyċ, bowiem Niemce Z ogniem
idą i żelazem!” |
Słucha Wanda zadumana, Ciężko w sercu
niespokojna, I tak mówi: – „Tylko o mnie, O mnie straszna będzie wojna!” |
„Biedna, biedna ja sierota...
Cóżem winna, ja – dziewczyna ? Że przeze mnie cierpieċ
będzie Ukochana ma kraina?” |
Panny wodne i
śmierċ Wandy
Częśċ osma —
|
Idzie Wanda nad brzeg Wisły, Patrzy w fale,
mknące szybko, I tak myśli: – „Lepiej by mi Byċ
srebrzystą w wodzie rybką!” |
Słucha, o czym szemrzą fale, Plusk
wydając nieustanny, A wtem z Wisły się wychylą Dwie
prześliczne wodne panny. |
Ręce ku niej wyciągnęły I tak
mową mówią rzewną: „ Do nas pójdź, kwiatuszku złoty,
Zbliż się ku nam, o królewno!” |
„Pośród fal będziemy razem Tańczyċ,
pląsaċ wciąż wesoło, Aż uśmiechną
się twe oczy, Aż rozchmurzy się twe czoło”. |
|
„Szatę damy ci srebrzystą, Z
księżycowych blasków łkaną, A koronę z lilii wodnych
Uwijemy w każde rano”. |
„O, Wandeczko, o Wandeczko, Szumią, szemrzą
wody chyże, Pójdźtu do nas, ukochana... Bliżej...
bliżej... jeszcze bliżej!” |
A królewna szepce cicho: „Żegnaj mi, wawelski
grodzie, Zegnaj, śliczna polska ziemio, Żegnaj, dzielny mój
narodzie!” |
„Z całej cię miłuję duszy,
Życie daję ci w ofierze, Ty szczęśliwy bądź na
wieki, A mnie Wisła niech zabierze!” |
|
Potem się uśmiecha cudnie, I już
skacze w fale Wisły, A że słońce na nie padło, Fale
w tęczach się rozprysły. |
A w kasztelu, na Wawelu, Wstaje trwoga, lęk
się zrywa, Każdy drżącym pyta głosem: „Gdzie królowa
miłościwa?” |
Cały Kraków Wandy szuka, Wtem zawołał
rybak młody: „Patrzcie, jakie światło jasne Na wiślane
pada wody!” |
Popłynęli tam łodziami I z rozpaczy
potruchleli: Bowiem fale Wandę niosą, Strojną w kwiaty,
całą w bieli. |
|
Płacz niezmierny się rozlega, Płacze
polska ziemia cała: „Za nas, za nas śmierċ poniosła, Za
nas się ofiarowała!” |
Śpi spokojnie uśmiechnięte Biedne to
królewskie dziecię, A jej drużki, płacząc cicho,
Białe na nią sypią kwiecie. |
Potem zacni krakowianie Za dobrodziejstw
wdzięczni tyle, Wzniosły kopiec usypali Na cichutkiej jej mogile. |
|
Nad tym kopcem w
każde rano, Gdy wiosenne lśnią się dzionki, Z całej
Polski przylatują I śpiewają jej skowronki: „Tirli... tirli...
śpij, Wandeczko... Spij, królewno ukochana... Nigdy imię twe nie
zginie... Tirli... tirli... dana, dana!...” Kornel Makuszyński M. Walentynowicz http://parafia-siennica.pl/index.php?pokaz=a_czytelnia/bajki/wanda/wa08
Poznaj tez inne
publikacje
|
|
|
Umieszczone na niniejszej
stronie treści i fotografie zapożyczone są z
Internetu .Autorom publikującym należą się
podziękowania co niniejszym ☻ czynię. Cały
zbiór w witrynie stanowi wyłącznie
materiał informacyjno -edukacyjny.
